The formation of culture in the 1930s. A manual on the history of the fatherland
Why in the history of Soviet culture is the period of the 1970s called the “Cultural Revolution”? Lesson assignment.
Economic transformations in the USSR set the task of increasing the educational level of the population. The pedagogical experiments of the 20s were unsuitable for this. In 1930, the transition to universal primary education began, in 1937 - to the seven-year plan. Lessons returned to school , a solid schedule, grades, etc. New programs and textbooks were created. In 1934, the teaching of history and geography was restored, and then other disciplines. 1. Development of education. School on the collective farm named after Karl Marx. Kabardino-Balkaria.
20 thousand new schools were opened in the country. In the 30s. In the USSR, there were 35 million students. According to the 1939 census, literacy was 87.4%. Secondary specialized and higher education developed rapidly. In terms of the number of students and students, the USSR took 1st place in the world. Circulation books in 1937 amounted to 700 million copies. They were published in 110 languages of the peoples of the USSR. 1. Development of education. Rural school for adults.
The development of science in the USSR proceeded under powerful ideological pressure. Those who disagreed with this approach were subjected to persecution and repression. In biological science, a group led by T. Lysenko persecuted Soviet geneticists - N. Vavilov, N. Koltsov, A. Serebrovsky. Lysenko explained his actions by defending Darwinism and Michurin’s theory from “bourgeois science.” Subsequently, many geneticists were repressed, and genetics itself was prohibited. 2. Science under ideological pressure. D. Nalbandyan. Session of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Stalin paid great attention to historical science. History began to be interpreted as the history of class struggle. In 1938, “A Short Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks” was published, edited personally by Stalin. He exalted Stalin and actually became the official interpretation of the foundations of Marxism-Leninism and the history of the CPSU (b). On its basis, unofficial schools in historical science were destroyed, irreparable damage was caused to it. 2. Science under ideological pressure. S. Vavilov, N. Koltsov, A. Serebrovsky
Despite ideological pressure, representatives of the natural sciences were able to achieve outstanding success. S. Vavilov (optics), A. Ioffe (crystal physics), P. Kapitsa (microphysics), I. Kurchatov (nuclear physics) and others enriched world science. Chemists N. Zelinsky, A. Bakh, S. Lebedev made fundamental discoveries in the field of obtaining artificial substances and organic food products. 3. Achievements of Soviet science. A. Ioffe and P. Kapitsa
Soviet biologists N. achieved worldwide recognition. Vavilov, V. Pustovoy, V. Williams and others. Significant successes were achieved in mathematics, astronomy, mechanics, physiology. Geology and geography gained enormous development during this period. This was associated with the beginning of the industrial development of Siberia and the Far East .New deposits of minerals were discovered: oil in the Volga region, coal in the Moscow region and Kuzbass, iron in the Urals, etc. 3. Advances of Soviet science. V.S. Pustovoit
In the 30s The elimination of differences of opinion in artistic culture was completed. From now on, art must follow one direction - socialist realism and show life as it should be in the minds of party leaders. Art began to plant myths and create an illusion, that the happy time had already arrived. Using it, the authorities skillfully manipulated public opinion and directed it in the right direction. 4. Socialist realism. P. Belov. Hourglass.
Cinema made a huge contribution to the formation of a new consciousness. The documentary chronicle covered current events in the right light. It owed much of its success to outstanding directors - D. Vertov, E. Tisse, E. Schub. In 1931 in the USSR The first sound film was staged, “The Road to Life.” The second color film was “Grunya Kornakova.” The historical films, Chapaev, We are from Kronstadt, and the trilogy about Maxim, were especially popular. 5.Soviet cinema. Still from the film “Chapaev”
5.Soviet cinema. I. Ilyinsky and L. Orlova in the film “Volga-Volga”. The musical films “Volga-Volga”, “Jolly Guys”, “Pig Farm and the Shepherd”, etc. were especially popular among viewers. Children’s cinema began to take shape - “Timur and his team”, “Golden Key”, “The Lonely Sail Whitens.” On the eve of the war, a whole series of patriotic films appeared—Alexander Nevsky, Peter I, Minin and Pozharsky. The most famous directors were S. Eisenstein, N. Eck, G. Alesandrov, I. Pyryev, V. Pudovkin.
The development of music was associated with the names of S. Prokofev, D. Shostakovich, T. Khrennikov, I. Dunaevsky. Musical groups appeared - the Great Symphony Orchestra, the Beethoven Quartet, etc. When assessing the work of composers, the tastes of the leaders played a huge role, so D. Shestakovich was subjected to harsh criticism. Song creativity reached its heyday. The works of I. Dunaevsky , B. Mokrousov, M. Blanter, and the Pockrass brothers were known throughout the country. 6.Music and painting. I. Dunaevsky and V. Lebedev-Kumach.
6.Music and painting. B.Ioganson. Interrogation of communists. In fine art, the main thing was not the artist’s skill, but the ideological orientation of the plot, compliance with the principles of socialist realism. His classic was B. Ioganson, whose painting “Interrogation of the Communists” was awarded with all possible awards. A. Deineka, Yu. Pimenov, M. Nesterov. M. Saryan, P. Konchalovsky, A. were able to establish themselves in the landscape genre. Lentulov.
7.Theater.Literature. M.I. Kalinin among the awarded writers. Strict censorship left its mark on the quality of literature. Many ephemera works were published. Nevertheless, many talented writers worked during this period. M. Gorky writes “The Life of Klim Samgin”, “Yegor Bulychev and Others”. A. Tolstoy finished “Walking in Torment” and begins work on the novel “Peter I”. A huge contribution to the history of literature was made by M. Sholokhov, M. Bulgakov, V. Kaverin, A. Platonov and others.
In the late 20s. plays by Soviet playwrights began to take hold on the stages of Soviet theaters. “The Man with a Gun” by N. Pogodin, “Optimistic Tragedy” by V. Vishnevsky, “Tanya” by A. Arbuzov - made up the “golden fund” of the repertoire of many theaters. M. Gorky's plays were successfully performed throughout the country. Soviet people were introduced to culture thanks to the rapid growth in the number of theaters, museums, philharmonic societies, and libraries. Talent shows were held throughout the country. 7.Theater.Literature. B. Shchukin as Lenin in the play “Man with a Gun”
What is culture? There are many answers to this question. In a broad sense, culture is everything that is created by the mind and hands of man. There is material and spiritual culture, culture of work, life, etc. The main subject of our consideration is “culture and time.” We will talk primarily about those events, phenomena, cultural people who clearly reflected their era in its ideas and values, scientific and technical achievements, and artistic monuments.
In the first decades of the 20th century. Among the European intelligentsia there arose feelings of crisis and disintegration of the surrounding world, a premonition of imminent changes and even the end of the existing order of things. Then the Russian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev wrote an essay with the remarkable title “The End of Europe”, and the German O. Spengler wrote the book “The Decline of Europe” (literally translated - “The Decline of the Western World”), which became widely known after the World War. These works debunked rationally optimistic ideas about European history, faith in endless progress and the increasing welfare of mankind. Instead, ideas of a cultural and historical cycle and an inevitable change of cultures were put forward.
In artistic culture, the position of realism, which was the highest achievement of the 19th century, began to weaken more and more noticeably. Originating at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The new artistic movement received a name that emphasized its modernity - modernism. It represented different movements and groups that did not have a single ideological and artistic program. Common features were a departure from the traditions and ideals of previous art, as well as the search for new artistic forms and means.
A special place in the artistic culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. took over the Art Nouveau style (note the difference between the concepts of “modern” and “modernism”), which spread in many European countries (in France - under the name “Art Nouveau”, in Germany - “Jugendstil”, etc.). It was based on the idea that art creates beauty and brings it into life, which in itself is not very good or attractive. One of the means to achieve this goal was considered to be a synthesis of different arts: architecture, decorative and applied arts, painting, graphics, etc. Art Nouveau masters also widely used combinations of elements of different styles: European and Oriental, modern and traditional. Particularly significant were the achievements of Art Nouveau in architecture, where unusual in appearance, elegant, and sometimes elaborate buildings with a convenient internal layout were created. However, for all its artistic expressiveness, Art Nouveau remained a style for the elite and soon gave way to other trends.
The most daring searches for new artistic forms and means of expression were carried out by the so-called avant-garde (the French word “avant-garde” means “advanced”) movements and groups. Poets here experimented with the forms and size of verse (one can recall, for example, the early work of V.V. Mayakovsky), artists - with the color and composition of paintings. The painters did not set out to depict any object close to reality; their paintings often had no plot at all. The decisive role was played by the visions and feelings of the artist himself. Fauvism (translated from French as “wild”), primitivism, expressionism, cubism, and abstractionism became well-known modernist movements during this period. Over the course of two or three decades, they changed and developed into other trends. Many major masters, whose names were associated with individual movements (for example, A. Matisse - with Fauvism, M. Chagall - with primitivism, P. Picasso - with Cubism), in fact “did not fit” into this narrow and rather conventional framework . They did not obey the canons of one movement or another, they improved their own style and manner of painting, which later became models. A noticeable phenomenon in the modernist movements of the early 20th century. became the work of V. Kandinsky, K. Malevich, N. Goncharova, L. Popova and other Russian artists.
Artistic culture of the 1920s–1930s
The World War and the events that followed it brought severe trials and losses to millions of people, shook the foundations of the social structure, and gave impetus to attempts at its revolutionary transformation. During this period, the contradictions that divided people and the common aspirations for freedom and justice came to light. This could not but be reflected in the culture of subsequent decades.
Writers of the “lost generation” occupied a prominent place in post-war literature: the German E. M. Remarque, the American E. Hemingway, the Englishman R. Aldington and others. They participated in the war and could not forget what they saw and experienced. Showing the life of their heroes in the war, they protested against the horrific extermination of people in its everyday life. At the same time, the reason for which the war was fought was called into question. The English poet R. Brooke wrote about this during the war years: “And if I die, just think that somewhere there is a piece of foreign land that has become England.” The anti-war orientation of the works of the writers of the “lost generation” caused different attitudes - support from some people and irritation from others. Thus, the Nazis used E. M. Remarque’s novel “All Quiet on the Western Front” as a reason to deprive the writer of German citizenship.
Unlike the writers of the “lost generation”, who were dominated by a feeling of regret about lost ideals and values, many figures of European culture saw in the turbulent events of the first decades of the 20th century. implementation of the most important social and political ideas. They were attracted by the active struggle of people against inequality and injustice, for social and national liberation. Such views were shared by the French writers A. Barbusse and R. Rolland, the German G. Mann, the American T. Dreiser and others. Their heroes did not find a place for themselves in bourgeois society. Some of them fought against this society, as in A. Barbusse’s novel “Fire,” while others, like Clyde Griffith from T. Dreiser’s “American Tragedy,” sought to make their way into it at any cost and died without achieving their goal.
In the literature and art of this direction, features characteristic of modern times have noticeably manifested themselves - the ideologization and politicization of culture. Many of the artists who belonged to it joined communist parties and were engaged in political and social activities. Representatives of revolutionary art in different countries united in unions and associations, such as the Workers' Council for the Arts in Germany (1918-1919), the Left Front in Czechoslovakia (since 1929), the Union of Proletarian Art in Japan ( 1929-1934) etc.
Some cultural masters who did not belong to any ideological or artistic associations or political parties turned to new social ideas, believing that they would help overcome the injustice and inhumanity of the existing system. Among them was one of the most brilliant and original writers of the 20th century. B. Brecht.
Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956) was born into a wealthy family. Already in his youth, he came to a spontaneous denial of the burgher, bourgeois way of life, which was reflected in his first plays. In his mature years, Brecht began studying Marxist literature. The events of 1929 - early 1930s in Germany, which he witnessed, strengthened his rejection of the existing social order. In 1933, after the Nazis came to power, he left Germany. Brecht became widely famous for his productions of his plays “The Threepenny Opera,” “Mother,” and others. In them, he partly used plots from the works of other authors (the play “The Beggar’s Opera” by the English playwright of the 18th century D. Gay and the novel “Mother” by M. Gorky) , but created original works with his own idea, style, language. They were distinguished by dynamic action, sharp dialogues, and included parable poems, songs, slogans and statements on the topic of the day. Thus, one of the characters in “The Threepenny Opera,” a robber-raider, declares in his defense: “What is a master key compared to a stock? What is raiding a bank compared to founding a bank?” Behind the paradox and mockery that the author often resorted to, there were hidden “eternal questions” about the life and death of a person, his ups and downs, dreams and failures. Next to the troublemaker artist stood the humanist artist. This last feature was especially clearly manifested in the plays “The Good Man from Szechwan” and “Mother Courage and Her Children” created by Brecht in the late 1930s and early 1940s.
History of the first decades of the 20th century. provided rich food for a special literary genre - social fiction. The authors of such works tried to present in circumstances they invented, outside of real place and time, events and models of social relations, the features of which they observed in the world around them. In 1920, E. Zamyatin wrote the science fiction novel “We,” which became one of the first creations in the dystopian genre (published abroad in 1924). Later, the novels of O. Huxley “Brave New World” (1932) and D. Orwell “1984” (1949) also belonged to this genre.
In the novel "We" the action takes place in a "mathematically perfect Unified State." The life of the heroes, designated by “numbers” instead of names, is strictly regulated at work and at home, in personal relationships and entertainment. Artistic creativity is considered in this society as a “public service”, and individual consciousness is considered a disease. The hero of D-503 rushes between the strict rules of the system and the human need for friendship and love. In the finale, he informs the Benefactor (the supreme leader of this society) about those who do not want to obey the existing order, about the “enemies of happiness,” including the woman he loves. Thus, he condemns them to torture and death, but remains faithful to the system. The novel seems to predict the features of the then emerging totalitarian societies.
A striking example of artistic prophecy was the novel by the Czech writer K. Capek “The War with the Newts.” It tells a fantastic story about how certain amphibious creatures, having come into contact with people, gradually capture more and more “living space”, and then, with the help of weapons received from people, begin a war aimed at destroying humanity. An entertaining story with elements of a brilliant parody of the society of that time suddenly became scary due to its resemblance to reality. This impression was strengthened by the fact that part of the narrative is constructed in the form of newspaper reports, similar in content to press publications of those years. K. Capek died in 1938, shortly before the outbreak of World War II, in which much of what he predicted came true. In this regard, one cannot help but recall the words of A.P. Chekhov: “A real writer is the same as an ancient prophet: he sees more clearly than ordinary people.”
In the visual arts of the 1920s-1930s, as well as in literature, new trends of both realistic and modernist orientation appeared. One of the most striking manifestations of innovation in realistic art was the Mexican school of monumental painting, created by artists D. Rivera, J. C. Orozco, D. A. Siqueiros and others.
The founders of the school were contemporaries and participants in the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1917. This shaped their attitude to life, to their people, and ideological positions. D. Siqueiros emphasized: “Our path was different, completely different from that of the artists of the European avant-garde...” Starting their creative activity, he and his comrades defined their main task as follows: “To create monumental and heroic art, humanistic and folk, focused on our great masters of the past and the extraordinary culture of pre-Hispanic America!” The implementation of these intentions was facilitated by the cultural policy of the first post-revolutionary governments, which attached great importance to the monumental propaganda of the ideas and gains of the liberation struggle of the peoples of Mexico. Young artists received orders to design administrative and public buildings. Monumental paintings appeared on the walls and facades of these buildings - frescoes reflecting historical and modern events. The artists denounced the war, the inhumane aspects of bourgeois society, and fascism. Their works combined emotionality, journalisticism and artistic expressiveness. The themes, images, and symbolism of the frescoes were deeply national; the masters of this school continued the traditions of the art of the Indians of Mexico. At the same time, they expressed the feelings of compassion and anger, shock and impulse for freedom inherent in all people. The technique of monumental painting invented by artists was also new to the art of that time.
Representatives of this school complemented their active artistic position with political activity. In the early 1920s, the Syndicate of Revolutionary Painters, Sculptors and Engravers was created, which declared the main task of art to be serving the cause of the revolution. The leaders of the Syndicate D. Siqueiros, D. Rivera, X. Guerrero were elected members of the Central Committee of the Mexican Communist Party. The illustrated newspaper Machete, published by the Syndicate, soon became the official organ of the Communist Party.
Significant changes occurred in the 1920s and 1930s in the modernist movement. Many of its representatives, having witnessed war and social upheaval, sought to escape reality and hide in their own world. Considering life to be cruel, uncontrollable and meaningless, they decided that art should not represent, explain or improve it. Moreover, art is irrational (not subject to reason). These ideas underlay the surrealism (“overrealism”) that emerged in the 1920s. Its creators argued that creativity is, first of all, a reflection of the artist’s subconscious feelings.
Surrealists most often depicted on their canvases certain fantasies, chaotic combinations of bodies and objects, often deliberately distorted and deformed. Denial of beauty and harmony, anti-aestheticism were characteristic features of this style. It was as if the transition from the mind to the subconscious, from the search for new forms to chaos, had been completed. The surrealists sought to shock, not S. Dali, the audience. Dream. 1937 not only for his creativity, but also for his eccentric, antisocial behavior. Their ideologist A. Breton stated: “The simplest surreal action is to go out into the street with a revolver in your hands and, as much as you can, shoot anywhere in the crowd.” One of the most famous surrealist artists, S. Dali, publicly called his method “critical-paranoid” (nevertheless, in the mid-1930s, the surrealists expelled Dali from their circle for the “overly academic” nature of his painting).
Culture in mass society
The formation of mass society in industrial countries in the 1920s and 1930s created conditions for the widespread dissemination of artistic culture. The positive thing was that works of art turned out to be more accessible to various layers and groups of the population and became part of public life. The costs, according to art connoisseurs, consisted of replacing unique, high-quality examples with serial, ordinary artistic products.
New trends visibly manifested themselves during this period in the art that creates the environment for people - architecture. Here, the trends of rational, constructivist architecture emerged, widely spreading in many countries, including Russia.
The emergence of new trends had both technological and social prerequisites. In construction technology, it was associated with the use of reinforced concrete structures, continuous glazing of walls, etc. The social order consisted of the need for widespread, mass urban development. If in the pre-war years architects focused on the design of administrative buildings, banks, and luxury mansions, now this list has been expanded with projects of multi-apartment residential buildings, university and school campuses, industrial buildings, and stadiums.
Many architects began creating residential complexes in which, along with standard residential buildings, there were public and domestic facilities. In some cases these were towns surrounded by park areas for representatives of the so-called middle class, in others - neighborhoods for workers. Projects of residential complexes received special support in the Soviet Union, where they were given an ideological justification: it was emphasized that this was “the opportunity to create a single powerful team that unites most public functions in a communal way.” According to such projects, communal houses, demonstration residential complexes with shops, kindergartens, laundries, etc. were built.
In rationalism and constructivism, simplicity and compliance of the forms and internal layout of the building with its purpose were given first place. A prominent representative of European rationalism was the French architect S. E. Le Corbusier (1887-1965). It was he who formulated the most laconic manifesto of the new movement: “A house is a machine for living.” Corbusier's buildings were raised above the ground on special support pillars, had a regular geometric shape, a well-thought-out layout, “ribbon” windows, and a flat roof intended for laying out a garden.
Factory in Rotterdam Arch. I. A. Brinkman and others 1928-1930
The famous Bauhaus school of rationalism was created by German architects led by V. Gropius. The Bauhaus style quickly acquired an international character.
Cinema became a mass art form in the 1920s and 1930s. This was the time of the formation of cinema; every year brought new artistic and technical discoveries. One of the peaks of world cinema during this period was the work of the outstanding actor and director Charles Chaplin.
Charles Spencer Chaplin (1889–1977) was born in London into an acting family and from his youth followed in the footsteps of his parents. As a young actor, he came to the United States, where he began directing comedy films at one of the studios in Los Angeles. In 1919, together with several actors and directors, he founded the independent film company United Artists. Chaplin's most famous films: "The Kid" (1920), "The Gold Rush" (1925), "City Lights" (1931), "Modern Times" (1936). Their hero is a small man in a bowler hat, oversized boots and a cane. It surprisingly coexisted external comedy, eccentric tricks and the sadness of a lonely person looking for warmth and sympathy. Watching his adventures, the audience laughed and cried. This is probably what brought Chaplin worldwide recognition.
The search for something new and significant achievements marked the first steps of Soviet cinema, which turned to themes of great social significance. The works of film director S. M. Eisenstein (1898-1948) gained international fame. His film “Battleship Potemkin” is included by film experts among the ten best films of all time.
In the late 1920s, the “Great Silent Man,” as cinema was called, began to speak (the first sound film was released in the United States in 1927). Silent film stars, who did not have the necessary acting technique and voice abilities, gave way to a new generation of actors, many of whom came from the theater. The acting has become more natural and understandable to the audience. Instead of the previous musical accompaniment, music began to play in films, helping to reveal the artistic intent and emphasize the dynamics of the action. Many famous composers wrote music for sound films. One of the highest examples in this field, which received international recognition, was S. S. Prokofiev’s music for the film “Alexander Nevsky” (1938).
Film production in the United States has gained particular momentum. The 1920s-1930s went down in history as the “golden age” of Hollywood (this film city arose in the outskirts of Los Angeles shortly before the First World War). It has become an international film center with great financial and technical capabilities. Actors and directors from many countries came here. But almost unlimited material possibilities did not provide absolute creative freedom. The work of film creators was strictly regulated by contracts with film studios. The owners of the “dream factory” (as Hollywood was called) knew well what kind of product they wanted to get.
In 1930, Hollywood adopted a mandatory Production Code for all studios. It said:
“Every American film should argue that the United States way of life is the only and best way for any person. One way or another, every film should be optimistic and show the little person that somewhere and someday he will grab his happiness by the tail. The film should not turn the dark sides of our lives inside out, and should not inflame decisive and dynamic passions.”
A notable feature of the culture of this period was the widespread dissemination of music. It sounded on the radio and in gramophone recordings. Partly it was classical music - opera and symphonic recordings (among the first, unique recordings of the great opera singers E. Caruso and F. I. Chaliapin were made). Symphony orchestras appeared on the radio. But pop and dance music was especially popular. This was the heyday of jazz, which originated in the United States and then spread to many countries. It was based on the rhythms of Negro folk music and improvisation. During these same years, the musical was born - a special type of performance that combined speech, singing and dancing.
Totalitarianism and culture
A special situation arose in the 1920-1930s in the culture of countries in which totalitarian regimes were established. B. Mussolini, speaking at the fascist party congress in 1925, declared: “We want to fascist the nation... Fascism must become a way of life. There must be Italians of the fascist era, just as there were, for example, Italians of the Renaissance.” Culture, like other spheres of social life, came under the control of the state. In Italy, the State Academy and the National Syndicate of Fascist Fine Arts were created.
In Germany, the Ministry of Public Education and Propaganda, headed by J. Goebbels, organized the Imperial Chamber of Culture, which included seven sections (press, radio, cinema, literature, theater, musical and visual arts). Persons who were not members of the chamber were essentially deprived of the right to engage in artistic activities.
The Nazis waged a “battle for culture” using the harshest methods. Already in 1933, exhibitions began to be organized under Roman civilization with very expressive titles: “Signs of Decay in Art”, “1938 Exhibition of Degenerate Art”, at which the works of modernist artists were declared “degenerate”. Almost 16 thousand works by foreign masters were confiscated from German museums: V. Van Gogh, A. Matisse, P. Picasso, V. Kandinsky, M. Chagall and others, as well as German artists whose style did not meet the tastes of the Nazis. Sculptural monuments were destroyed, for example the works of E. Barlach, dedicated to those who died in the war. They were declared "offensive to the national feelings of the Germans." In architecture, rationalist movements came under fire, and the world-famous Bauhaus school was closed. For racial reasons, jazz music was prohibited (in the USSR it was not accepted for another reason - as a manifestation of an alien bourgeois culture).
What was offered in return for the unwanted culture that was being expelled? First of all, what corresponded to the dominant ideology. Monumentalism reigned in art, which was supposed to reflect the greatness of the new society and the “superman” it generated.
An illustrative building was the architectural complex in Nuremberg (30 sq. km in area), intended for holding Nazi congresses and celebrations. It included the Palace of Congresses, a stadium with 405 thousand seats with stands over 80 m high, etc. The scale of the buildings corresponded to monumental sculptures of heroes of German history, athletes with “Nordic features”.
In German painting, having supplanted modernist searches and “streams of the subconscious,” the national-romantic style took hold. Preference was given to the themes “German soil”, “German labor”, “German mother”, “German soldier - defender of the Motherland”. Portraits and narrative paintings depicting leaders occupied a special place in painting and sculpture. The ideologists of totalitarianism, no less than American filmmakers, imagined the possibilities of influencing people in cinema. The canons for propaganda documentaries and feature films were also established here, not excluding entertainment films intended for mass audiences.
References:
Aleksashkina L.N. / General history. XX - early XXI centuries.
Gorelkina Elizaveta
The work is devoted to the development of culture in the post-war period (20-30s) in the world. The theme of the main directions of painting, architecture, cinema, theater, literature of Western Europe and the USA is revealed.
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Culture of the 1920-1930s Presentation on Contemporary History by a student of the 9th "A" class of Vidnovskaya Secondary School No. 4 Elizaveta Gorelkina Checked by: history teacher - Mazuryak V.M.
Originating at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The new artistic movement received a name that emphasized its modernity - modernism. It represented different movements and groups that did not have a single ideological and artistic program. Common features were a departure from the traditions and ideals of previous art, as well as the search for new artistic forms and means. The World War and its consequences, revolutions, social conflicts, the rise of nationalism and extremism, as well as the cultural crisis in a number of countries - all this had a huge impact on the art and literature of the 1920s. Changes in culture and art
Modern style. A special place in the artistic culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. took over the Art Nouveau style, which spread to many European countries. It was based on the idea that art creates beauty and brings it into life, which in itself is not very good or attractive. One of the means to achieve this goal was considered to be the synthesis of different arts: architecture, decorative and applied arts, painting, graphics, etc. New directions Alphonse Mucha. Maud Adams as Joan of Arc. Poster 1909
D. Michelucci Villino Liberty in Florence. 1911
The most daring searches for new artistic forms and means of expression were carried out by the so-called avant-garde movements and groups. Poets here experimented with the forms and size of verse, artists - with color and composition of paintings. The painters did not set out to depict any object close to reality; their paintings often had no plot at all. The decisive role was played by the visions and feelings of the artist himself. Vanguard
Kazimir Malevich, Suprematism
Kazimir Malevich, Black Square
Juan Gris. Mug of beer and cards. Collage. 1913
Juan Gris, Man in a Cafe. 1914. New York
Modernism: Fauvism is an extremely intense sound of open colors. Primitivism includes a deliberate simplification of the picture, making its forms primitive. Expressionism strives not so much to reproduce reality, but to express the emotional state of the author. Cubism is characterized by the use of emphatically geometrized conventional forms, the desire to “split” real objects into stereometric primitives. Abstractionism rejects the depiction of forms in painting and sculpture that is close to reality.
A. Matisse. "Red Room". 1908
"The Scream" by Norwegian artist Edvard Munch (1893)
Chagall Mark Zakharovich, Above the City
Marianna Veryovkina, Red City (1909)
Pablo Picasso. Three musicians. 1921
Composition with red, blue and yellow. 1930. Oil on canvas. Piet Mondrian
Writers of the “lost generation” occupied a prominent place in post-war literature: the German E. M. Remarque, the American E. Hemingway, the Englishman R. Aldington and others. They participated in the war and could not forget what they saw and experienced. Showing the life of their heroes in the war, they protested against the horrific extermination of people in its everyday life. Fiction of the 1920s-1930s
Unlike the writers of the “lost generation,” many figures of European culture saw the turbulent events of the first decades of the 20th century. implementation of the most important social and political ideas. They were attracted by the active struggle of people against inequality and injustice, for social and national liberation. Such views were shared by the French writers A. Barbusse and R. Rolland, the German G. Mann, the American T. Dreiser and others. Their heroes did not find a place for themselves in bourgeois society. Some of them fought against this society, as in A. Barbusse’s novel “Fire,” while others, like Clyde Griffiths from T. Dreiser’s “American Tragedy,” sought to make their way into it at any cost and died without achieving their goal.
Some cultural masters who did not belong to any ideological or artistic associations or political parties turned to new social ideas, believing that they would help overcome the injustice and inhumanity of the existing system. Among them was one of the most brilliant and original writers of the 20th century. B. Brecht. Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956) was born into a wealthy family. Already in his youth, he came to a spontaneous denial of the burgher, bourgeois way of life, which was reflected in his first plays.
History of the first decades of the 20th century. provided rich food for a special literary genre - social fiction. The authors of such works tried to present in circumstances they invented, outside of real place and time, events and models of social relations, the features of which they observed in the world around them. In 1920, E. Zamyatin wrote the science fiction novel “We,” which became one of the first creations in the dystopian genre. Later, the novels of O. Huxley “Brave New World” (1932) and D. Orwell “1984” (1949) also belonged to this genre. Dystopia
In the fine arts of the 1920-1930s, as well as in literature, new trends of both realistic and modernist orientation appeared. One of the most striking manifestations of innovation in realistic art was the Mexican school of monumental painting, created by artists D. Rivera, J. C. Orozco, D. A. Siqueiros and others. The founders of the school were contemporaries and participants in the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1917. Fine art 1920-1930s
Significant changes occurred in the 1920s and 1930s in the modernist movement. Many of its representatives, having witnessed war and social upheaval, sought to escape reality and hide in their own world. Considering life to be cruel, uncontrollable and meaningless, they decided that art should not represent, explain or improve it. These ideas underlay the surrealism that emerged in the 1920s. Its creators argued that creativity is, first of all, a reflection of the artist’s subconscious feelings. Changes in the modernist movement
Dali Salvador. Dream.
Surrealists most often depicted on their canvases certain fantasies, chaotic combinations of bodies and objects, often deliberately distorted and deformed. Dali's painting "The Persistence of Memory"
The formation of mass society in industrial countries in the 1920-1930s created conditions for the widespread dissemination of artistic culture. The positive thing was that works of art turned out to be more accessible to various layers and groups of the population and became part of public life. The costs, according to art connoisseurs, consisted of replacing unique, high-quality examples with serial, ordinary artistic products. Culture in mass society
New trends visibly manifested themselves during this period in the art that creates the environment for people - architecture. Here, the trends of rational, constructivist architecture emerged, widely spreading in many countries, including Russia.
In rationalism and constructivism, simplicity and compliance of the forms and internal layout of the building with its purpose were given first place. The famous Bauhaus school of rationalism was created by German architects led by V. Gropius. The Bauhaus style quickly acquired an international character.
Cinema became a mass art form in the 1920s and 1930s. This was the time of the formation of cinema; every year brought new artistic and technical discoveries. One of the peaks of world cinema during this period was the work of the outstanding actor and director Charles Chaplin. Cinema
Charles Spencer Chaplin (1889-1977) was born in London into an acting family and from his youth followed in the footsteps of his parents. As a young actor, he came to the United States, where he began directing comedy films at one of the studios in Los Angeles. In 1919, together with several actors and directors, he founded the independent film company United Artiste. Chaplin's most famous films: "The Kid" (1920), "The Gold Rush" (1925), "City Lights" (1931), "Modern Times" (1936).
Education
30s - one of the most controversial periods in the history of not only the political, economic, but also cultural development of the Soviet state. In the field of education, first of all, the fight against illiteracy continued. Universal compulsory primary education throughout the country was implemented by the end of the second Five-Year Plan (1937). In 1937, universal compulsory seven-year (incomplete secondary) education was introduced in cities, and in 1939 the task of transition to universal secondary education (ten years) was set. However, education in high school became paid in 1940 (300 rubles per year). This switched the interest of the majority of urban youth from secondary schools to vocational schools and factory training schools (FZO), which trained personnel reserves of qualified labor.
In the early 30s the dominant one in the 20s was rejected. theory of the withering away of the school. Universal education was accompanied by a serious reform of primary and secondary schools, a turn to the traditions of the pre-revolutionary school with its fundamental knowledge. Schools introduced a strictly defined schedule of classes and strict regulation of the educational and social work of schoolchildren. The main form of organizing the educational process was the lesson. Instead of “loose books,” stable textbooks on the basics of science were introduced. But, as in the 20s, they tried to bring training closer to production. Most schoolchildren carried out social work within the framework of pioneer and Komsomol organizations. In 1934, by decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, the teaching of history in schools was restored, and history departments were opened at Moscow and Leningrad universities, training highly qualified historian teachers.
In higher education since 1932, emphasis has been placed on the quality and fundamentality of specialist training. Entrance examinations to universities were restored, the brigade-laboratory method of teaching was replaced by lectures and seminars, and collective responsibility for the quality of studies was replaced by individual responsibility. Party mobilizations for studying at universities (Party thousand members), reservation of places for women, social restrictions on admission to universities and; finally, the famous workers' faculties. To increase the responsibility and role of teachers in the educational process, the Council of People's Commissars established academic degrees and titles in 1934.
The scienceIn the 1930s, the main feature of the development of science was a sharp turn to the needs of the country's economic development. As before, the main scientific center of the country was the USSR Academy of Sciences, whose branches began to be created in the capitals of the union republics in 1932. More than a thousand research institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences and economic people's commissariats developed the main scientific and technical problems provided for by state plans.
In the early 1930s, based on the developments of Soviet chemists led by Academician S.V. Lebedev, the production of synthetic rubber from ethyl alcohol was established. In 1932, geologists under the leadership of Academician I.M. Gubkin discovered new oil-bearing areas in the Urals and Bashkiria, called the “Second Baku”. Academician N.I. Vavilov collected the world's largest unique collection of cultivated plants from five continents for study and practical use. Particularly significant were the scientific developments of physicists - A.F. Ioffe, S.I. Vavilov, D.S. Rozhdestvensky, P.L. Kapitsa, I.E. Tamm, I.V. Kurchatov, L.D. Landau and many others who worked for defense. In 1933, the Jet Propulsion Research Group (GIRD) created and launched the first Soviet rockets. This group included the future creator of the world's first jet weapon (Katyusha) AT. Kostikov and the future chief designer of spacecraft S.P. Korolev. The beginning of the study of the stratosphere by Soviet scientists dates back to this time. In 1933, the first Soviet stratospheric balloon “USSR” rose to a height of 19 km. In 1934, the second stratospheric balloon “Osoaviakhim-1” with its crew rose to a height of 22 km. The second space exploration ended in the death of the crew, but this did not stop scientific developments.
A special page in the scientific chronicle of the 30s. entered by Arctic researchers led by O.Yu. Schmidt. In July 1933, he led a scientific expedition across the Arctic Ocean on the ship Chelyuskin, which soon fell into ice compression and sank in February 1934. In the distant Chukchi Sea, on a drifting ice floe, polar explorers created the “Schmidt camp”. It was only in April that they were removed from the ice floe. For heroism in rescuing polar explorers, the Soviet government for the first time awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union to pilots. In 1937, the study and development of the Arctic was continued by I.D. Papanin, E.T. Krenkel, E.K. Fedorov, P.P. Shirshov. In 274 days, the four polar explorers drifted on an ice floe in the ocean from the North Pole more than 2,500 km. Reference weather and radio stations were created in the North Pole area. Thanks to them, in 1937, pilots V.P. Chkalov, G.F. Baidukov and A.V. Belyakov made the first non-stop flight across the pole to the United States along the shortest straight line.
The Soviet aircraft industry also achieved significant success (development of the design of an all-metal aircraft by A.N. Tupolev and others), but in the late 1930s. many scientists, including aircraft designers, were arrested. Some of them continued their work while imprisoned in special laboratories of the NKVD system.
In the field of social sciences, particular importance was attached to a new reading of the history of the Communist Party. The work of historians was closely followed by J.V. Stalin personally, who demanded that Trotskyist concepts be eradicated from historical party science. In 1938, under the editorship of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, with the participation of I.V. Stalin, it was published "A short course on the history of the CPSU (b)", which for many years became the main reference point for socio-political research.
In 1937-1938 The scientific historical school of Academician M.N. Pokrovsky, who died in 1932, was sharply criticized. His name was removed from the name of Moscow State University, which in 1940 was named after M.V. Lomonosov.
In the second half of the 1930s. The process of politicization and ideologization of Soviet science sharply intensified. Political labels have begun to be actively used in scientific discussions. Opponents were often deprived not only of work in their specialty, but also of freedom and life. The President of VASKhNIL N.I. Vavilov was removed from the leadership of the academy in 1935 and was soon arrested. Two subsequent presidents were shot, and VASKHNIL was headed by T.D. Lysenko, who promised Stalin to solve the grain problem by breeding branched wheat.
Literature and artThe development of literature and art in the 1930s was determined by the decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations” (1932). All associations of the creative intelligentsia were liquidated, and the process of creating unified “industry” organizations of a republican and all-Union scale began. In 1932, the Union of Soviet Architects, the Union of Soviet Writers, and republican unions of Soviet composers and artists were created. A major event in the cultural life of the country was the First Congress of Soviet Writers, held in August 1934, which elected A.M. Gorky as chairman of the board of the Writers' Union. Gorky, who finally returned to his homeland in 1931, became an active propagandist socialist realism, which was proclaimed the main artistic method. Socialist realism required combining the historical specificity of the artistic depiction of reality with the education of workers “in the spirit of socialism.”
In 1936-1937 The struggle against formalism in literature and art began. Innovation in musical and theatrical art was condemned; modern drama, satire, love poetry were actually prohibited; non-political topics were curtailed. The military theme dominated in books, films, plays, and music.
Among the most important achievements of Soviet literature of the 1930s. include the novels “The Life of Klim Samgin” by A.M. Gorky, “Virgin Soil Upturned” by M.A. Sholokhov, “How the Steel Was Tempered” by N.A. Ostrovsky, “Peter the Great” by A.N. Tolstoy, books for children by A.P. Gaidar, etc. The poetic creativity of A.A. .Akhmatova, B.L.Pasternak, O.E. Mandelstam. It should also be noted the dramaturgy of N. Pogodin, L. Leonov, Vs. Vishnevsky and others.
The largest phenomena in musical life were the works of S.S. Prokofiev (music for the film “Alexander Nevsky”), A.I. Khachaturian (music for the film “Masquerade”), D.D. Shostakovich (opera “Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk”, banned in 1936 “for formalism”). The songs of I. Dunaevsky, A. Aleksandrov, V. Solovyov-Sedoy gained wide popularity.
Cinematography has made a significant step in its development (films “Chapaev” by S. and G. Vasilyev, “Baltic Deputy” by I. Kheifits and A. Zarkhi, “Alexander Nevsky” by S. Eisenstein, comedies by G. Alexandrov “Jolly Fellows”, “Circus” ").
Historical and revolutionary themes were actively developed in painting (“Death of a Commissar” by K. Petrov-Vodkin, “Defense of Petrograd” by A. Deineka, “Trumpeters of the First Cavalry Army” by M. Grekov, etc.), as well as the portrait genre (works by M. Nesterov , P. Korina, etc.). The most outstanding sculptural work of the 1930s. became the monument to V. Mukhina “Worker and Collective Farm Woman”.
Rental block
I Congress of Soviet Writers - Congress of Lessons
On August 17 - September 1, 1924, the First Congress of Soviet Writers took place in the Hall of Columns in Moscow - an event as significant as it was mysterious...
A line of national, internal support was being built in the country. Most of our leaders began to understand that in the upcoming battle with the world of fascism and capital we cannot count on the help of the world proletariat, we must rely on our people, our economy, history, culture.
And at this time, the People's Commissariat for Education, where N.K. Krupskaya tried to rule, “expelled” Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and other “non-proletarian” writers from school libraries. But a patriotic group of the country’s leaders gave the signal for the publication of classics of domestic literature in millions of copies, the creation of libraries for schoolchildren, peasants, Komsomol members, and Red Army soldiers from the works of N. Gogol, L. Tolstoy, A. Pushkin, N. Nekrasov, M. Lermontov, I. Krylov.
Books of Pushkin's works filled the country in 1937.
Historical traditions were revived, forging the character of the victorious Russian people over foreign invaders.
Revolutionaries of all eras pushed aside, giving way to St. Alexander Nevsky, Suvorov, Kutuzov, Peter the Great. The letter from the country's leaders - Stalin, Zhdanov, Kirov - said that we must respect the history of the country and its heroes: military men, scientists, cultural figures.
The First Congress of Soviet Writers became a field of ideological battle for many forces, and not only within the country. A considerable part of Russian writers, not accepting the actions of the Soviet government in the maelstrom of historical events, left Russia. Russian literature in exile for many years preserved the spirit, style, and image of Russian classics. Among them are the great I. Bunin, I. Shmelev, I. Ilyin.
Someone returned to their homeland (A. Tolstoy, I. Kuprin, M. Gorky). On the territory of Soviet Russia, as it seemed to many, literature would never be revived. The leaders of those who declared themselves “proletarian” writers did not accept any continuity and proclaimed: “In the name of our Tomorrow, we will burn Raphael, We will destroy museums, we will trample the flowers of art...” Ruthless “proletarian” writers, true “frantic zealots” only for themselves conferred the right to be considered representatives of literature. All these Averbakhs, Lelevichs, Bezymenskys, Libedinskys, Utkins, Ermilovs crucified any attempts to think nationally, to peer deeply into life, to make it the subject of artistic comprehension, the search for truth. Everything in literature was subordinated to the idea of world revolution, the destruction “to the ground” of the old world and a throw into the future. They did not notice the outstanding stories of M. Sholokhov, through clenched teeth they talked about the talent of L. Leonov, V. Shishkov, calling them “fellow travelers” with contempt.
The main road of literature ended up in the hands of RAPP, VOAPP, MAPP - the so-called proletarian organizations of writers. They seized almost all literary and socio-political publications, waving the baton of criticism, beating all the rebellious, non-standard, trying to create national literature.
Society was then heterogeneous; there were many people who represented the basis of the pre-revolutionary system. And although by 1936 the Constitution declared the equality of all people, in reality this was not the case.
The first warning to the “frantic zealots” was in 1932 the party resolution “On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations,” according to which it was decided to liquidate the association of proletarian writers and unite all writers who support the platform of the Soviet government into a single Union of Soviet Writers. M. Gorky, who is considered the initiator of this decision, nevertheless spoke in support of RAPP, which, in his words, “united the most literate and cultural party writers.”
The congress was opened on August 17, 1934 by A.M. Gorky with his report. By this time he had finally returned to the Soviet Union. Of course, one can be skeptical and critical of the First Congress of Writers, but it nevertheless unfolded a panorama of the active, growing, diverse literature of the country. Did he mention all the worthy names? No, of course. Rappism did not give up its positions, the Trotskyist-Bukharin opposition gave its “battle” at the congress.
One can attribute the “excesses” to Stalin, but we must not forget that, in addition to A. Gorky, the main reports were given by N. Bukharin (on poetry, poetics and the tasks of poetic creativity), K. Radek (on world literature and the tasks of proletarian art). But it was N. Bukharin who published the famous “Evil Notes” about Sergei Yesenin back in 1927. After this, Yesenin disappeared from publishing plans, school textbooks and anthologies for almost 30 years. Bukharin was also merciless towards Mayakovsky. K. Radek was just as cruel to Russian poets.
They wanted to form their own ranks of recognized poets and leaders close to them in spirit. M. Gorky was used to put pressure on Stalin and Zhdanov. But the conversation about literature, artistic creativity, folk origins, Russian history, talent and language still took place, despite the loud proletarian rhetoric of the Rappovites. M. Gorky said: “The beginning of the art of words is in folklore. Collect our folklore, learn from it, process it... The better we know the past, the easier, the more deeply and joyfully we will understand the great significance of the creativity of our present.”
The Writers' Union was to a large extent subordinate to the state and party leadership, but conditions for creativity and material support were given to writers.
Option 2.
The first congress of Soviet writers took place from August 17 to 30, 1934. This truly significant event was preceded by the Decree of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations,” from which it followed that numerous writers’ organizations were to unite into one, consisting of writers who fully “support the platform of Soviet power.” The authorities wanted to unite people who were completely different in their worldview, creative methods and aesthetic inclinations. The venue for the First All-Union Writers' Congress was the Column Hall of the House of Unions. For such a solemn event, it was necessary to decorate the room; after a few debates, it was decided to hang portraits of literary classics in the hall. Which immediately became a reason for the irony of evil-tongued writers: There was plenty of room for everyone, some on the podium, some in the stalls, and some just on the wall! So, for example, everyone was taken aback, the fact appeared to us as in a dream - Alyosha Tolstoy was at the pulpit, Leva Tolstoy was on the wall. One of the delegates of the First Congress of the Union of Writers of the USSR, A. Karavaeva, recalled the opening day of the forum: “On a sunny August morning in 1934, approaching the House of Unions, I saw a large and lively crowd. Among the chatter and applause - just like in the theater - someone’s young voice was heard energetically calling: “Comrade delegates of the First Congress of Soviet Writers! When entering this hall, do not forget to raise your historical mandate!... The Soviet people want to see and know you all! Say, comrades, your last name and present your delegate card!” According to mandate data, men predominated among the delegates to the First Congress of USSR Writers - 96.3%. The average age of participants is 36 years. The average literary experience is 13.2 years. By origin, the first place came from peasants - 42.6%, from workers - 27.3%, from the working intelligentsia - 12.9%. Of the nobles only 2.4%, clergy - 1.4%. Half of the delegates are members of the CPSU(b), 3.7% are candidates for membership of the CPSU(b) and 7.6% are Komsomol members. The number of prose writers among the congress participants was 32.9%, poets - 19.2%, playwrights - 4.7%, critics - 12.7. Children's writers - 1.3% and journalists - 1.8%. The national composition of the congress is also curious. Russians - 201 people; Jews - 113; Georgians - 28; Ukrainians - 25; Armenians - 19; Tatars - 19; Belarusians - 17; Uzbeks -12. A further 43 nationalities were represented by between 10 and one delegates. There were even Chinese, Italians, Greeks and Persians.
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