Bosh sahifa > Psixologiya > I bob. Antik davrda navigatsiya va dengiz savdosi tarixi. Kurs kitobi "Navigatsiya tarixi" fanidan ma'ruza


I bob. Antik davrda navigatsiya va dengiz savdosi tarixi. Kurs kitobi "Navigatsiya tarixi" fanidan ma'ruza




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CHEUSH SDI YUFPTYY ON "NPTERMBChBOYE J CHPKOSCH" RP EZP NOEOYA, VSCHMY DCHHNS ZHBLFPTBNY, UPDEKUFCHPCHBCHYYNY TBCHYFYA YUEMPCHEYUEUFCHB, OP EUFSH RPCHMYSCHYYNY. zPHKP TBBUYFYEN NPTERMBCHBOYS CHPDB, Y, HUBUFOPUFY, NPTE, POGGHIHTEHEHEHMEALSHEALSHEALSHEALSHIPFYAHYUYESh, UBHUFUFYESAYNE MENMENEOFNY RTTCHTBYFYMYYshY UCHSHAYBYEYaSHYYTCHFYYYYshI

eUMBROSE DEDEMFANA NPTERMBCHBOYY NUJLEAR UHT RTS NSCH RHFSNY, OBSTRUCTIVE javobgar RTPCHEDEOYEN DMS TBBYFYS YEMPCHEYUYUFCHB. H OBUFPSEKE CHTENENS 'FIU PVB RHFI UMYMYUSH H PDYO H CHPEEPON ​​ZhMPFE.

bOB Har bir ZHMPFSCH OT TBUN TEYBMY UHDSHVVH OBTPPCHCH I HAQIQ QURUQ QO'YIShDANINGIZNING XAVFSIZLIGI MASALASI. NPTE ON UTBCHOYFEMSHOP OEVPMSHYPE YUYUMP CHPEOOSCHI DEKUFCHYK, NPTULYE CHPKOSCH YNEMY VPMSHYEE OBYUEOYE, UHYE ON Yuen CHPKOSCH ON oEUNPFTS; OW PODB UHIPRHFOBS VYFCHB RP UChPENH YUFPTYUUELPNKH OBYBYuOA RETCHA YBI

oEUNPFTS OBFP, YUFPTILE CHEUI CHTENEO HDEMSMY UCHPE CHYNBOY REYNHEEUFCHEOOP UHIPRXFOSCHNK CHKKOBNI BTNYY; RPUMEDOYNY OE FPMSHLP VPMSHYE YOFETEUPCHBMYUSH, OP J RPOYNBMY YEE ZPTBDP MHYUYE, Yuen NPTULPE Dempo J NPTULYE CHPKOSCH.

lPFPTPN TBSCHZTSCHCHBMYUSH NPTULYE CHPKOSCH ON oERPUFPSOOPE NPTE, LCA VPMSHYYOUFCHB MADEK OEOBLPNP TH OE LBTSEFUS RTYCHMELBFEMSHOSCHN; NPTULBS CE UMHTSVB OE TBURPMBZBEF A OBHYUOPK J MYFETBFHTOPK DESFEMSHOPUFY, RPFPNH NPTSL TEDLP RTYVEZBEF A Rethi, IPMF R ™ £ J DBTSE CHMBDEEF dH PFMYYUOP. OY PDYO YZ ČCHDBAEJIUS ZHMPFPCHPDGECH OE PUFBCHYM OBN PYUBOYS UCHPYI RIPDPCH, RDPDPVOPZP UDEMBOOPNH YMY, VMPME vmyyPe OPSBYPNHH rfpnh uchdeojs n pptulyi chkkobi, dpyyyyy dv obu, l uptsbmeoya, oerpufbfpyuosch i ubufp rtpuychpteuyuchsch; RP BFPK RTYUYOE OEDEDLP, CHU HUYMYS HAQIDA OEUNPFTS, OE HDBEFUS UPUFBCHYFSH RTBCHYMSHOPE RTDUFBCHMEOYE RTPYUIPDYCHYEN.

uBNP UPVPK TBHNEEFUS, YUFP NPTULYE CHPKOSCH NPZMY OBYUBFSHUS FPZDB, LPZDB TBCHYMPUSH NPTERMBCHBOYE, OBTPDSCH ON kuni J RPFPNH VHDEF CHRPMOE HNEUFOSCHN PVTBFYFSH CHZMSD YUFPTYA UHDPIPDUFCHB, OBYVPMEE URPUPVUFCHPCHBCHYYE EZP TBCHYFYA.

bYuBFLY UHDPIPDUFCHB PFOPUSFUS quritgich CHTENEOBN, X n LPFPTSCHI OCU OE YNEEFUS OYLBLYI UCHEDEOYK. rETChSchN UTEDUFCHPN LCA RETEDCHYTSEOYS RP CHPDE, CHETPSFOP, VSCHM RMPF, UCHSBOOSCHK UOPRPCH LBNSCHYB YMY dv dv CE DTECHEUOSCHI UFCHPMPCH, UMHTSYCHYYK LCA RETEDCHYTSEOYS FEYUEOYA YMY RP CE RTYCHPDYNSCHK H DCHYTSEOYE YEUFBNY; UOBVTSBMUS ZTHVSCHN VTHUPN, YZTBCHYYN TPMSH THMS, J OEVPMSHYYN YBMBYPN UBNPZP RTYNYFYCHOPZP FYRB IN. RPDPVOPZP TPDB RMPFSCH ChUFTEYUBAUS VA NIMA BO'LADIMI ta'mirlash. uMEDHAEEK UFHREOSHA SCHMSEFUS YUEMOPL - CHSCHDPMVMEOOSCHK UFCHPM DETECHB, ECE ATSOSCHI NPTSI OEULPMSHLP DEUSFLPCH MEF FPNH OBBD RTYNEOSCHYYKUS UPPVEEOYS NETSDH lYMEN VHI TH MMETVELPN H CHYDE "PDOPDETECHPL» (Einbaum) ning YURPMSHHENSCHK FERETSH Q W Q, RTYCHPDYCHYYIUS H DCHYTSEOYE rty RPNPEY CHEUEM YMY CE RTYNYFYCHOPZP RBTHUB. FP HTSE VSCHMY UHDB, LCA YZPFPCHMEOYS LPFPTSCHI FTEVPCHBMPUSH RTYNEOEOYE YCHEUFOSCHI YOUFTHNEOFPCH, OELPFPTSCHK RTPZTEUU ON YUFP HLBSCHCHBEF. ECE VPMSHYYN RTPZTEUUPN SCHMSAFUS MPDLY ning, ULPMPYUEOOSCHE DV PFDEMSHOSCHI DPUPL TH TH UOBVTSEOOSCHE CHEUMBNY RBTHUBNY; FBLYE UHDB NPZMY RPSCHYFSHUS MYYSH rty OBYUYFEMSHOPN TBCHYFYY TBMYYUOSCHI TENEUEM J HNEOYY PVTBVBFSCHCHBFSH NEFBMMSCH.

fPMYuPL RETCHSCHN RPRSCHFLBN NPTERMBCHBOYS, CHETPSFOP, DBMP TSCHVPMPCHUFCHP, B LPFPTSCHN RPUMEDPCHBM PVNEO FPCHBTPCH, OP EUFSH NPTULBS FPTZPCHMS; OBTSDH ECE H TBOOYE CHTENEOB TBCHYMPUSH RYTBFUFCHP ning, Fyn'S RTPUFPTE OYLPNH OE RTYOBDMETSBEEZP NPTS, zde J H OBYEN UFPMEFYY UYMB YUBUFP SCHMSEFUS BLPOPN bor. ECE RTEDUFBCHMEOYS P OE VSCHMP NETSDHOBTPDOPN RTBCHE, CHUSLYK YUHTSEUFTBOEG UYUYFBMUS CHTBZPN, LPFPTPZP NPTSOP VSCHMP HVYFSH VEOBLBBOOP PN RPOSFYSN DTECHOYI X LPFPTSCHI; NPTULPK TBVPK OE UYUYFBMUS RTEUFHROSCHN TH, TH TH RPPTOSCHN RTPYCHPDYMUS UPCHETYEOOP PFLTSCHFP. Chueh NPTEIPDOSCHE OBTPDSCH TBVPKOYYUBMY ON NPTE, TH MADEK BOYNBMYUSH TBVPFPTZPCHMEK OF PIPFYMYUSH. Flying Rynetbny SChMSEFUS TURNSHIP ETHERNING RTRSHR TFUHPI PRESS (PEWWES, XV, 402-483).

h UNSCHUME TBURPMPTSEOYS J ZPDOPUFY A NPTERMBCHBOYA PFDEMSHOSCHE OBTPDSCH TELP PFMYYUBMYUSH DTHZ PF DTHZB. ELPA, ABC l RETCHSCHN ECPAT PFOEUFY ZHYOYLYKGECH, VPMSHYHA YUBUFSH ZTEYUEULYI RMENEO FTHULPCH J, L RPUMEDOYN CE - EZYRFSO, YODHUPCH, RETUPCH J TYNMSO.

eCE H PYUEOSH PFDBMEOOSCHE CHTENEOB CHSCHDEMSMYUSH UTEDY DTHZYI OBTPDOPUFEK TBCHYFYEN UCHPEZP NPTEIPDUFCHB, OP RTSNSCHI DPLBBFEMSHUFCH FPZP, OH RYUSHNEOOSCHI, OH CHEEEUFCHEOOSCHI, UBNY Sing RPYUFY OE PUFBCHYMY ning zhYOYLYKGSch.

dETACHIK EZYREF

uBNSchE TBOOYE UCHEDEOYS DPYMY OCU DP YUETE RPUTEDUFCHP EZYRFSO, TH OE OP B CHYDE RYUSHNEOOSCHI UCHYDEFEMSHUFCH, PUFBCHMEOOSCHI DTECHOYNY RYUBFEMSNY, B MYYSH VMBZPDBTS RTPYCHPDSEYNUS YUFEOYA YETPZMYZHPCH bor UCHSBOOPNH oin UETEDYOSCH XIX C. TBULPRLBN RBNSFOYLPCH J bor.

nPTE UPMEOPK CHPDPK, RP UHECHETOSCHN EZYREFULYN CHPTEOYSN, CHPURTEEBCHYYN HRPFTEVMSFSH B RYEH NPTULYI TSCHV J NPTULHA UPMSH, RTEDUFBCHMSMPUSH GBTUFCHPN MPZP DHIB (fYZhPOB) J CHOHYBMP HTSBU, RPFPNH DP CHPGBTEOYS VPMEE UCHPVPDPNSCHUMSEEZP ZHBTBPOB rUBNNEFYIB bor (PO 664-611. DP O. b.) EZYREFULBS NPTULBS FPTZPCHMS VSHMB MYSH RBUUCHOPK. DTHZPK UFPTPOSCH, oYM PF UCHPYNY THLBCHBNY, UMHTSYCHYYK EUFEUFCHEOOSCHN RHFEN UPPVEEOYS, OE NBMP URPUPVUFCHPCHBM FPNH, YUFP B eZYRFE, UFBTEKYEK RP LHMSHFHTE UFTBOE, PYUEOSH TBOP J H YYTPLYI TBNETBI TBCHYMPUSH TEYUOPE UHDPIPDUFCHP ham. REFINERY haqida Sing RTYCHPDYMYUSH B DCHYTSEOYE YEUFBNY J UMHTSYMY LCA RETECHPLY MADEK J TSYCHPFOSCHI, DBTSE VSCHLPCH, TSCHOLY ON J LCA DPUFBCHLY FPCHBTPCH. pDOP YBPVTBTSEOIK FBLPZP RMPPB PFOPUYFUS L GBUTPHPCHBOY VI DIOBUFY (UETEDYOB III FSCHP DP O. l.)

h FP CE CHTENS, OEMSHS RTEHCHEMYYUYCHBEF UFTBI EZYRFSO Reted NPTEN J OEDPPGEOYCHBFSH YEE B DPUFYTSEOYS PVMBUFY UHDPUFTPEOYS J NPTERMBCHBOOYS. RETCHER BOLALAR UNIVERSITETI UHDB RPSCHYMYUSH EZIRFE TKHVETS IV-III FSCHU haqida. DP O. b. eZYRFSOE HTSE YNEMY OEULPMSHLP DPCHPMSHOP UPCHETYEOOSCHI B FEIOYYUEULPN PFOPYEOYY FYRPCH UHDPCH, LBL, OBRTYNET, UMHTSYCHYYE LCA RETECHPLY MADEK RMPULPDPOOSCHE UHDB, DMYOPA W 10-16 NEFTPCH, IPDYCHYYE RPD RPD CHEUMBNY J RBTHUPN. ob optika dfs rpNYNP rbtkhub, dms dchitseois umhtymyy fbltse mbogefpyshdosche chEUMB, pf 8 DP 26 U LBDPZPPTFBB; VHI HRTBCHMEOYS UHDOPN YURPMSHPCHBMYUSh PF 2 D.P.Makovitskiy 5 CHEUYEM LBTSDPK UFPPOTOSH H LPTNE. AB UHDBI, RTEOBBOUBCHYIUS DMS DBMSHOI RETEIPPCH, YNEMYUSH URMEHOOOCH YY FTPUOYLB LBAFSch. YUYUMEOPUFSH LNBODSCH DIPDYMB DP 70 UEMPCHEL. lTHROEKYYE DV FYI UHDPCH YNEAF UIPDUFCHP ko'plab chuqurchalar chYLFPTYS OF UHDBNY RTBCHYFEMS hZBODSch nFEUB, PRYUBOOSCHNY uFEOMY B EZP Lojze 1878 ZPDH, 4600 MEF RPDOEE OF OP EUFSH VPMEE yuen × "yuETE yuETOSchK NBFETYL" CHSCHRHEEOOPK bor.

rPNYNP FPZP X EZYRFSO YNEMYUSH VPMSHYYE RPOFPOSCH, ZTHPRPDYAENOPUFSHA DP 200 POCPs UMHTSYCHYYE LCA RETECHPLY FSTSEMSCHI ZTHPCH, LBLPCHSCHNY, OBRTYNET, VSCHMY LBNEOOSCHE ZMSCHVSCH, RTYNEOSCHYYEUS LCA ZYZBOFULYI EZYREFULYI RPUFTPEL.

pn LPOUFTHLGYY EZYREGLYE LPTBVMY PE NOPZPN OBRPNYOBMY VPMEE TBOOYE OYMSHULYE FTPUFOYLPCHSCHE UHDB YMY RMPFSCH. EYOUFCHEOSCHNOSH RTYZPDOSHN VMS lPTPFLYE PFTELY DETECHB ULTERMSMYUSH NETSDH UPVPK RPUTEDUFCHPN CHTEPL J YRHOFPCH LPTRHU LCA VPMSHYEK RTPYUOPUFY PVFSZYCHBMUS FTPUBNY (zETPDPF RPFPNH UTBCHOYCHBM PVYYCHLH EZYREFULYI UHDPCH LYTRYYUOPK LMBDLPK bor). HTTPChOY RMBOYYTB LOTYMYUS VYNUSH HAQIDA VTTFBCHETYBMYUSH RMBOYTPN. FY VYNUSCH J UFTYOZET, RTPIPDYCHYYK PF OPUB A LPTNE OERPUTEDUFCHEOOP RPD Oýny, RTYDBCHBMY LPTRHUH DPRPMOYFEMSHOHA RTPYUOPUFSH. yRBOZFFSCH PFUHFUFCHPBBMY. oBFSOHFSchK FTPU NETSDH CHSCHUPLP RPDOSFSCHNY OPUPN J LPTNPK RPNPZBM HDETTSYCHBFSH YEE W FBLPN RPMPTSEOYY. lYMSh LBL FBLPCHPK PFUHFUFCHPCHBM - EZP BNEOSMB RTPDPMSHOBS LYMECHBS RMBOLB, B DCHPKOBS NBYUFB, UFPSCHYBS VMYTSE A shishgan, PRYTBMBUSH ON VPTFB, LBL X FTPUFOYLPCHSCHI UHDPCH, oldinga LPFPTSCHI OE NPZMP DBFSH OBDETSOPK LCA OEE PRPTSCH. dTEChOEKYYE EZYREFULYE DETECHSOOSCHE UHDB VSCHMY OBKDEOSCH OEDBCHOP bVYDPUE W, W RPZTEVEOYSI OBYUBMB RETCHPK DYOBUFYY - CHTENS GBTEK Beebe (nEOEUB) YMY dTsETB, PLPMP 3000 Z. DP O. b. h PFMYYUYE PF UHDPCH RPY IV DYOBUFYY DV zYSch Sing VSCHMY BIPTPOEOSCH H UPVTBOOPN CHYDE. h DMYOH Sing DPUFYZBMY 20-30 NEFTPCH, DPULY PVYYCHLY, LBL J RTEDRPMBZBMPUSH, ULTERMSMYUSH FTPUBNY, EEMY NETSDH Oýny BLPOPRBYUYCHBMYUSH CHPMPLOBNY RBRYTHUB.

y OBYUBMB III FSCHUSYUEMEFYS eZYREF UFBM YNRPTFYTPCHBFSH PFMYYUOSCHK UFTPECHPK Mey J DV uYTYY nBMPK bYY (OBNEOYFSCHE MYCHBOULYE LEDTSCH) PDOBLP PUOPCHOSCHE MENEOFSCH LPOUFTHLGYY EZYREFULYI UHDPCH NEOSMYUSH NEDMEOOP. h FP CHTENS UFTPYMYUSH NPTEIPDOSCHE UHDB DMYOPK DP TBUYUYFBOOSCHE J VPMEE ZTEVGPCH 50 H 40. n OHYE NShch NPTSEN UHDYFSH RP UDEMBOOPK × 1954 Z. Ch zYE OBIPDLE 43 NEFTPCHPZP UHDOB GBTS iEPRUB, LPFPTPE VSCHMP RPNEEEOP B UREGYBMSHOHA RPDENOHA LBNETH B TBPVTBOOPN UPUFPSOYY. nBFETYBMPN DMS OEZP RPUMHTSYMY MICHBOULIK LEDT, ZTBV, UILPNPT I BLBGYS. rETChPOBYuBMShOP EZYRFSOE RPMSHPCHBMYUSH LPTPFLYNY, LBL ON LBOP, CHEUMBNY HLMAYUYO VE. rTPUFEKYYE HLMAYUYOSCH - CHETECHPYUOSCHE Refma, RTPRHEEOOSCHE YUETE PFCHETUFYS B RMBOYYTE, RPSCHYMYUSH PLPMP 2400 Z. DP O. b. ZTEVGH RTYIPDYMPUSH CHUFBCHBFSH, UFPVShch RPZTHYFSH CHEUMP H CHPH; UPCHEBS ZTEVPL, ULBNSHA HAQIDA PRHULBMUS PVTBFOP haqida. hfp tse chtens ufbmy lteryfs l ltpne y txmecchE chuemp, ufp PVMEJUBMP hrtbchmeoye ukhdopn.

dcpccd TEMSHEZHE DV ZTPVOYGSCH bIYVY B uBLLBTE RPLBBOP, LBL LPNBODB PRHULBEF FBLHA DCHPKOHA NBYUFH to'g'risida.

du LPOGB III FSCHUSYUEMEFYS YURPMSHPCHBMYUSH PYUEOSH CHSCHUPLYE (RP PFOPYEOYA LPTRHUH L) NBYUFSCH, OEUYYE PDYO CHSCHUPLYK J HLYK RBTHU (oYME ON, men EZP CHSCHUPLYNY VETEZBNY, FP RPCHPMSMP VPMEE ZHZHELFYCHOP MPCHYFSH RPRHFOSCHK CHEFET). lPZDB RBTHU OE YURPMSHPCHBMUS, NBYUFB CHSCHOYNBMBUSH DV UFERUB J HLMBDSCHCHBMBUSH CHDPMSH RBMHVSCH.

nBYuFHHDETTSYCHBMY NOPZPYUYUMEBCHOCH CHBFFVY VBLYFBZY. zhPTYFBZY RPSCHYMYUSH PLPMP 2400 Z. DP O. b. nBYuBB, RETCHPOBYUBMSHOP UFBCHYCHYBUSUS VMYTS L SKULP, UNEYBMBUSH LFEREN XALQARO. pLPMP 1500 Z. PD O. b. UNING RPNEEBMY TPCHOP RPUETEDYOE UHDOB, YUFP RPCHPMSMP ENH IPDYFSH OE FPMSHLP RTSNP RP CHEFTH. rBTHU LTERYMUS CHETIOEK YLBFPTYOPK A TEE, B OYTSOEK - L HFMEZBTA (B DTECHOPUFY HFMEZBTSH YURPMSHPCHBMY PDOY MYYSH EZYRFSOE). hFMEZBTSh YNEM UPVUFCHEOOSCHK UFPSYUYK FBLEMBTS, FBL LBL UDEMBOOSCHK DV RBRYTHUB RBTHU OE VSCHM DPUFBFPYUOP RTPYUOSCHN, YUFPVSCH EZP HDETTSYCHBFSH. hFMEZBTSh VSCHM BLTERMEO OERPDCHYTSOP, B RBTHU RPDOYNBMUS J PRHULBMUS CHNEUFE TEEK bor. eZYRFSOE OE YURPMSHPCHBMY VMPLY, RPFPNH LCA HRTBCHMEOYS RBTHUPN FTEVPCHBMPUSH NOPZP THL. pLPMP 2000 Z. ON UNEOH CHSCHUPLPNH RBTHUH RTYYEM RBTHU RTSNP RTPFYCHPRPMPTSOPK ZHPTNSCH - OYLYK J PYUEOSH YYTPLYK.

nPTULYE UHDB UFTPYMYUSH RP FPC CE UIENE, YUFP TEYUOSCHE J, Wu FPK MYYSH TBOYGEK, YUFP LCA HLTERMEOYS UMYYLPN MEZLPZP LPTRHUB YURPMSHPCHBMUS FPMUFSCHK FTPU, RTPFSOHFSCHK NETSDH OPUPN LPTNPK J, Wu OBLYOHFPK ON LPTNH REFMEK. LPNBODB OBFSZYCHBMB EZP, BLBTYUYCHBS RTY RPNPEY ChBZY. HTPCHOE RBMHVSCH ON fPOLYK LBOBF PRPSUSCHCHBM LPTRHU, OE DBCHBS PVYYCHLE TBUIPDYFSHUS RPD DBCHMEOYEN RBMHVOSCHI VYNUPCH. TEMSHEZHE DV bVHUYTB ON uBNSchE TBOOYE NPTULYE UHDB NPTSOP CHYDEFSH, CHSCHRPMOEOOPN PLPMP 2450 Z. YPVTBTSBAEEN CHPCHTBEEOYE LBLPK-OP CHPEOOPK LUREDYGYY.

eZYREFULYE FELUFSCH DBAF OELPFPTSCHE UCHEDEOYS PV YURPMSHPCHBOYY ZHMPFB B CHPEOOSCHI GEMS. HTC FP, PYUECHYDOP, UBNPE DTECHOEE PRYUBOYE UPCHNEUFOSCHI DEKUFCHYK ZHMPFB J UHIPRHFOSCHI Foydalanuvchining profili Foydalanuvchining profili «eZP CHEMYYUEUFCHP RPUSCHMBM NEOS RSFYLTBFOP CHPDYFSH CHPKULP J HUNYTSFSH UFTBOH TSYFEMEK REULPCH LBTSDSCHK TB, LBL Sing CHPUUFBCHBMY - RPNPESHA DEKUFCHPCHBM FBL bilan FYI PFTSDPCH, YUFP EZP CHEMYYUEUFCHP ICHBMYM NEOS yilda. dPMPTSYMY, UFP VFOPHTY UDEDYFYFYY YUHTSEENGECH REFLECTED REF HAQIDAGI. UHDBI ON RETERTBCHYMUS bilan FYNY PFTSDBNY J RTYUFBM X CHSCHUPLYI PFTPZPCH ZPTSCH UECHETOEE UFTBOSCH TSYFEMEK REULPCH, RTYYUEN RPMPCHYOB CHPKULB YMB UHIPRHFOPK DPTPZPK bor. RTYYY BIBCHBYFYM YI CHUEY bilan. VSHMY RETAWYFSCH STRAIGHT OYI CHUE VHOFBTY. (Dv yETPZMYZhYYuEULBS OBDRYUSH bVYDPUB H chETIOEN eZYRFE, UBOPCHOYLB hOSch - UPCHTENEOOYLB GBTEK VI DYOBUFYY fEFY II, rYPRY men, nETEOTB I - UETEDYOB XXV - OBYUBMP XXIV HH DP O. L lBYTULYK NHEK rETEChPD J LPNNEOFBTYY va rETEREMLYOB bilan .....) .

yAENAFUS FBLEC MAXSULOTLASh MAHSULOTI. DBMSHOI RMBCHBOSHSI DETECHYI EZYRFSO. pn OBKDEOOSCHN rty TBULPRLBI B DPMYOE iBNNBNBF YETPZMYZHYYUEULYN OBDRYUSN NPTSOP BLMAYUYFSH, 2300 PD H. O. b W ECE YUFP EZYREFULYE UHDB. RMBCHBMY B ULBPYUOHA UFTBOH rHOF - DV ZBCHBOY mEChLPU mYNEO (OSCHOE lPEKT) zde LPOYUBMBUSH DPTPZB, A lTBUOPNH NPTA DV lPRFPUB ON CHETIOEN oYME CHEDHES. vPMEE FPYUOSCHE UCHEDEOYS P NPTULPN dema H DTECHOPUFY DBAF rag'batlantirgan OBDRYUY J YPVTBTSEOYS H ZHYCHBOULPN ITBNE DECT-MSH bolg'acha, RPUCHSEEOOSCHE LUREDYGYY, RPUMBOOPK H rHOF YUETE lTBUOPE NPTE GBTYGEK iBFYERUHF (1479-1458) 1470 PLPMP Z. DP O. b.

fY LPTBVMY, UIPDOSCHE CHSCHYEPRYUBOOSCHNY LTHROSCHNY OYMSHULYNY UHDBNY, UHEEUFCHPCHBCHYYNY B 1000 MEF DP FPZP CHTENEOY, OBYUYFEMSHOSCHE Hura ON HLBSCHCHBAF HTSE bor. LPTRBC TEMPLEBOOKBOOKMEB TELBRATOR ZHPTYFECHEOSH RTSNPK, BIFETYFECHEOSH RMBCHOP YPZOHF J BCHETYBEFUS VHFPOPN MPFPUB. lPOGSch RBMHVOSCHI VYNUPCH RTPRHEEOSCH ULCHPSH PVYYCHLH, YUFP RTYDBCHBMP LPOUFTHLGYY VPMSHYHA RTPYUOPUFSH. pFRBM OEPVIPDYNPUFSH PRPSHUSCHCHBFSH LPTRHU UHDOB FTPUPN. RBTHU, LBLA UHDBI haqida FPZP o'qish, YYTPLIK Y OYLIK. TIMEMUS HAQIDA DMYOOPK TEE Y DKHI UCHSHBOSCHI NECDH UPVPK DETECHSHECH HAQIDA. nBYuFB VPMEE OYLBS, Yuen ON VPMEE TBOOYI UHDBI, LPMYYUEUFCHP YFBZPCH UPLTBFYMPUSH. oYLBLYI RTYURPUPVMEOYK LCA TYZHMEOYS RBTHUPCH OE CHYDOP, CHPNPTSOP, YUFP rty UYMSHOPN CHEFTE VPMSHYPK RBTHU URHULBMUS J BNEOSMUS NEOSHYYN. lBTsDPE UHDOP YNEMP RP 30 ZTEVGPCH - NPTSOP RTEDRPMPTSYFSH, YUFP FY LPTBVMY DPUFYZBMY NEOEE OU 30 H H DMYOH. RPUME 1400 Z. DP O. b. H EZYREFULPN UHDPUFTPEYOE RTPYUIPDSF ASOSIY YILLAR. h DBMSHOEKYEN POP TBCHYCHBMPUSH HTSE B TBNLBI PVEEK UTEDYENOPNPTULPK FTBDYGYY, zde FPO BDBCHBMY URETCHB lTYF, B BFEN ZHYOYLYKGSCH J ZTELY.

fB NPTULBS LUREDYGYS, UOBTSTSEOOBS GBTYGEK iBFYERUHF, SCHMSEFUS RETCHSCHN RPIPDPN, DP n LPFPTPN OCU DPYMY DPUFPCHETOSCHE J PVUFPSFEMSHOSCHE UCHEDEOYS. rPFPNH GBTYGE iBFYERUHF RP URTBCHEDMYCHPUFY RTYOBDMETSYF RETCHPE NEUFP B NPTULYI BOOBMBI. ZTH, RTYCHPYNSCHK UFTBOSCH rHOF DV, DV UPUFPSM PMPFB, UETEVTB, UMPOPCHPK LPUFY, YUETOPZP J DTHZYI GEOOSCHI RPTPD DETECHB, TSYCHSCHI VMBZPHIBAEYI TBUFEOYK B LBDLBI, VMBZPCHPOOPK UNPMSCH, MEPRBTDPCHSCHI YLHT, TSEOEYO, nuqsonlar J RBCHYBOPCH DCHHI RPTPD. du uyi RPT, PDOBLP, ECPAT UYUYFBFSH OECHSCHSUOEOOSCHN, VSCHM MJ UPCHETYEO FPF RPIPD EZYRFSOBNY, LPFPTSCHE, IPMF J PVMBDBMY OBYUYFEMSHOSCHN CHOHFTEOOYN TEYUOSCHN ZHMPFPN, OP RPD TEMYZYPOSCHN CHOHYEOYEN TSTEGPCH RYFBMY OETBURPMPTSEOYE J UFTBI A NPTA, YMY CE ZHYOYLYKGBNY, OBIPDYCHYYNYUS YDBCHOB B YUBUFSCHI UOPYEOYSI eZYRFPN bor . B ZHYOYLYKGECH ZPCHPTYF OP PVUFPSFEMSHUFCHP, YUFP UTEDY ZHTEUPL OEDBCHOP PFLTSCHFPK B zhYChBI ZTPVOYGSCH, PFOPUSEEKUS RTYVMYYFEMSHOP A FPC CE RPIE (XVIII DYOBUFYY) YNEAFUS YPVTBTSEOYS RPDPVOSCHI CE LPTBVMEK, OP Biz LPNBODPK ZHYOYLYKULPK. hpcnp FSCHUSYUEMEFYE URHUFS gempen lPZDB, PLPMP DP 600 C O. b., GBTSH oEIP PFRTBCHYM ZHMPFYMYA LCA PVIPDB LTHZPN bZhTYLY, OP LPNBODB Chus VSCHMB UPUFBCHMEOB DV FEI ZHYOYLYKGECH CE, OE EZYRFSO B (zETPDPF, IV, 42) LPFPTSCHE, LBBMPUSH R ™ £ , NPZMY A FPNH CHTENEOY PFTEYYFSHUS PF UHECHETOPZP UFTBIB Reted NPTEN RPD CHPDEKUFCHYEN ZTEYUEULPZP CHMYSOYS, RTPOYLYEZP B eZYREF rty GBTE rUBNNEFYIE.

pTU UCHPEN OTBURPMPTSEYOY L NPTA, ETSENTIFICATION RTDPUFBCHYMY UCHP FPTZPCHMA ZHOYOYKGBN. oYME CE GBTY YDBCHOB UPDETTSBMY CHPEOOSCHE UHDB, ECE PYUEOSH PFDBMEOOSCHE CHTENEOB EZYREFULYK CHPEOOSCHK ZHMPF YNEM PRTEDEMEOOHA PTZBOYBGYA ning J B. pLPMP 1600 Z. DP O. b. ZHMPF FPF CHSCHUFHRYM BLFYCHOP LCA CHSCHFEUOEOYS ZYLUPUPCH (UPAB IHTTYFULYI J UENYFULYI RMENEO) RPTBVPFYCHYYI UFTBOH J PVPUOPCHBCHYYIUS H DEMSHFE oYMB. uPVSchFYS FY PFTBTSEOOSCH B OBDRYUY ON UFEME GBTS lBNPUB (OBYUBMP XVI-qism A. DP b.). uHDS RP FPNH YUFPYUOYLH, ZHMPF YURPMSHPCHBMUS TELPZOPUGYTPCHLY LCA, LCA RETEVTPULY J CHSCHUBDLY CHPKUL. h OBTRYUY HRPNSOHFSCHCH OBBCHOYAS OEULPMSHLYI LPTBVMEK. UFEOBI ZTPVOYGSCH OBYUBMSHOYLB ZTEVGPCH sINPUB ON uPITBOYMBUSh FBLTSE OBDRYUSH, TSYCHYEZP rty RETCHSCHI FTEI GBTSI XVIII DYOBUFYY (OBYUBMP -. UETEDYOB XVI-qism A. DP b). sinpo HYUBUFCHPCHBM B OEULPMSHLYI LBNRBOYSI RTPFYCH ZYLUPUPCH J LHYYFPCH, ozar eZYRFB OF RPDBCHMSM CHPUUFBOYS. RETEYUYUMOSHCH OBSTBBOYS UMHTSYM UFXPTSHCHI HAQIDA UHDPCHI UHDPCH. OEPDOPLTBFOP UTBTSBMUS ON oYME RTPFYCH CHTBTSEULYI ZHMPFPCH DV OBDRYUY UMEDHEF, YUFP (HRPNSOHFSCH BICHBYUEOOSCHE dH H RMEO ZTEVGSCH RTPFYCHOYLB). sinpo PUPVP PZPCHBTYCHBEF EF UMHYUBY, LPZDB On UTBTSBMUS UHYE - PYUECHYDOP, PUOPCHOBS EZP UMHTSVB VSCHMB UCHSBOB OYMSHULYN ZHMPFPN bor.

tEMSHEZH tBN'EUB III, PLPMP 1190 Z. DP O. Ü., Y. ITBNB h. uTBTsEOYE RTPYUIPDYMP zde-OP OERPDBMELH UHY PF (H RTBCHPN OYTSOEN HZMH EZYREFULYK CHPYO DPVYCHBEF YMY VETEF B RMEO CHSCHVTBCHYEZPUS ON UHYH RTPFYCHOYLB BFPOHCHYEZP LPTBVMS bor), OP PRTEDEMEOP ULBBFSH, zde - B PDOPN DV THLBCHPCH oYMB YMY X RPVETETSSHS iBOBBOB - OECHPNPTSOP. EZYREFULYE UHDB AFPZP CHTENEOY OBOBYUFEMSHOP PFMYUBAF PF FEI, UFP RTDUFBCHMEOSCH TEMSHEBBI IBFYERUFF haqida. F FP ISHLAB CHIQARISH LPTBVMY. OPU HLTBYEO ZPMPCHPK MSHBB, BIFETYFECHEOSH RTSNPK, B OE Y'PZOFSCHK. ZTEVGSHCH KHLTSCHFSCH PF CHTBTSEULYI UFTEM CHCHUPLYN ZBMSHYVPTFPN. RBMHF UHDB, PYUXYDOP, OE YNEMY. oBFSOHFSchK NETSDH OPUPN J LPTNPK FTPU PFUHFUFCHHEF - RTPYUOPUFSH LPTRHUB, DPUFYZBEFUS B UYUEF CHOHFTEOOEK LPOUFTHLGYY b 1400 Z. DP O. yilda LBL J X UYTYKULYI LPTBVMEK ZHTEULY .. YOUNEOIMUS Y TBOZFF - YUYU HFMEZBTSH, ULTBFYMPUSH YUJMP YFBZPCH I FPREOBOFCH TES. TEY HCE OE RTSNSHCHE, B UMEZLB YYPZOFSCHCHE. nBYuBBBUCHETYBEFUS UNPFTPCHPK RMPEBDLPK. RSPCHYMYUSH ZYFPCHSCH - H FPN CHIDE, H LFPPPN POYBFEN UHEEUFCHHAHA RTPFSCHE BOYUIPP LFPY haqida. FP CHBTSOPE YPVTEFEOYE, RPCHPMSAEEE VSCHUFTP RPDFSZYCHBFSH RBTHU A TEE, CHPNPTSOP, VSCHMP UDEMBOP ZPTBDP TBOSHYE, OP DEUSH POP RTEDUFBCHMEOP CHRETCHSCHE. rtyneubemescop, yufp TBOZPHF EZYREFULYI UHDPCH RTBLFYUYY OE PFMYUBEFUS PF CHTBTSEULYI FBLEMBTS. LPPTBVMY "OBTPDPCH NPTS" - SECULPZP FYRB, RTSNSHNY KHZMPCHBFSChNUPUPN I LPTNPK, OPU HLTBYEO HFYOPK ZPMPCHPK.

rPPLOBOP, CHETPSFOYE CHUEZP, CHOEBROBE OBDBDEOYEE EZYRFSO UFPSAYK HAQIDA MA'LUMOTNI CTBTSEULIK JMPF. rbthub ctbceuligi lptbvmek hvtbosch, setevgpch u cemby oy chydop. UPPPOPOSH ESIRFSO DECAFCHHAF RPYUFY YULMAYUYFEMSHOP MXHOYUIL. CHRISTOPHE O'z KUPITI DCB EZYREFULYI LPTBVMS UYMYYMYUSH U RTPFYCHOYLPN. UFSPAYK HAQIDA HAQIDA Ezirefulike Chcyo RPTBTSBEF LPRSHEN RTPFYChOYILB LPTNE CTBTSEULPZP UHDOB haqida. eZYRFSOYO HAQIMIZDA DTHZPZP LPTBVMS ZPFPCHYFUS RHUFEYFSH SIP VCHMBCHH.

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fPP FYR NTPULPZP UHDOB, LFPPTSChK RTEPVMBDBM XABARLARI KLAY II FSCH ni tanlang. DP O. b., RP-CHYDYNPNH VSCHM BYNUFCHPCHBO LPTBVMEUFTPYFEMSNY mEChBOFB J eZYRFB PLPMP 1400 Vt .. zhTEULB DV ZTPVOYGSCH lEOBNHOB B zhYChBI RTEDUFBCHMSEF FPTZPCHSCHE UHDB, RTYYEDYYE B eZYREF, UHDS RP YEE LYRBTSH DV uYTYY (YUEOPVPTPDSCHE NPTSLY LTAYULPCHBFSCHNY OPUBNY bor). Sing PE NOPZPN OBRPNYOBAF LPTBVMY iBFYERUHF (CHSCHUFHRBAEYE DBMELP HBS CHPDPK GTC LPTNB NY, NY RTSNSCHE ZHPT- BIFETYFECHOY, RTPRHEEOOSCHE ULCHPSH PVYYCHLH VYNUSCH). hDETTsYChBAEYK LPTNH J GTC RTPDPMSHOSCHK FTPU PFUHFUFCHHEF - RTPYUOPUFSH LPTRHUB DPUFYZBEFUS, PYUECHYDOP, B UYUEF CHOHFTEOOEK LPOUFTHLGYY (YRBOZPHFSCH, UFTYOZETSCH). pn TPURYUY OECHPNPTSOP UHDYFSH P TBNETBI FYI UHDPCH, PDOBLP PVOBTHTSEOOSCHE H-Ushbu tashkilot yBNTE (hZBTYFE) DPLHNEOFSCH RTYNETOP FPZP CE CHTENEOY UCHYDEFEMSHUFCHHAF FPN P, Q YUFP UFTPYMYUSH DPCHPMSHOP VPMSHYYE UHDB - PDYO FBLPK LPTBVMSH NPZMP VSCHFSH RPZTHTSEOP DP 450 POCP ETOB ON.

rETURN STONE UTEDYENOPN NPTSI. pvp pUPVEOOPZP OBYUEOYS B YUFPTYY CHPEOOSCHI ZHMPFPCH EZYREFULYK ZHMPF OE YNEM, TH OE BEYEBM FPTZPCHPZP ZHMPFB IN FBL LBL, OH NPTULPK FPTZPCHMY.

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oBMYYuYE B dTEChOEN eZYRFE UHDPIPDOSCHI LBOBMPCH B RPIH oPChPZP GBTUFCHB BUCHEDEFEMSHUFCHPCHBOP BTIEPMPZYEK. uMEDSch LBOBMB, rty ning RPUFTPEOOPZP tBNEUE II, VSCHMY PVOBTHTSEOSCH rty RTPTSCHFYY UPCHTENEOOPZP RTEUOPCHPDOPZP LBOBMB. RTPI NYNP uchun oYYuEZP, PDOBLP, AF YUFP LBOBM FPF UPEDYOYM DCHB NPTS ON OE HLBSCHCHBEF.

eCE PDOPZP UHDPIPDOPZP LBOBMB VSCHMY PVOBTHTSEOSCH YTBYMSHULYNY ZEPMPZBNY B UECHETP-CHPUFPYUOPN HZMH dEMShFSch ning uMEDSch (L CHPUFPLH lBOFBTSch PF). Sing RTEDRPMPTSYMY, YUFP FPF LBOBM OELPZDB RTPIPDYM DP oYMB YUETE chBDY fHNYMBF, IPMF DPLBBFSH FP RPLB OE HDBMPUSH. chDPMSh FPZP HYUBUFLB "chPUFPYuOPZP LBOBMB" LPFPTSCHK METSYF NETSDH uHGEN J zBPK, OBKDEOSCH NOPZPYUYUMEOOSCHE RPUEMEOYS RPY oPChPZP gBTUFChB, YUFP RPCHPMSEF DBFYTPCHBFSH EZP UFTPYFEMSHUFCHP OE RPTSE FPZP CHTENEOY.

uFinAnn h OBDRYUY POP YNEOHEFUS "TBDEMSEAYNY CHPDBNY" (FB DEOBF). chPNPTsOP, FP FPF UBNSCHK "chPUFPYuOSchK LBOBM" YMY "rHFY zPTB" LBL dasturi OBCHBO B DTHZYI FELUFBI.

h UCHSY Y n ECE PDOH LUREDYGYA rHOF H CHPRTPUPN LBOBME UMEDHEF HRPNSOHFSH, H LPFPTBS PRYUBOB FBL OBSCHCHBENPN "rBRYTHUE zBTTYUB" - BCHEEBOYY tBNEUB III (1185-1153): «UHDB VSCHMY OBZTHTSEOSCH EZYREFULYNY FPCHBTBNY YUYUMB VE. rTYYuEN Sing UBNY [UHDB] YUYUMPN B DEUSFLY FSCHUSYU PFRTBCHMEOSCH B NPTE CHEMYLPE - HX-muz. DPUFEYZBAF POY UFTBOSH rHOF. BDT dPUFEYZBAF SINGING, VHDHYUI OECDING, lPRFPUULPK RHUFSCHY. rTYYuBMYChBAF Sing VMBZPRPMHYUOP CHNEUFE YNHEEUFCHPN, DPUFBCHMEOOPN YNY bor. VETEZH lPRFPUB ON organizmiga th MADEK ZTHSF UHDB OF TH oBZTHTsBAF Sing EZP LCA RETECHPLY RPUHIH PUMPCH, J PFRTBCHMSAF CHCHETI WP TELE Reted UPVPK ".

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dTECHOEKYEZP CHTENEOY RP, 1500 C DP O. ZMBCHOPE OBYUEOYE YNEMY UECHETOSCHE ZPTPDB b -. VETYF (vEKTHF) J vYVM (dTsEVBM). rPDOEE THLPCHPDSEHA TPMSH UFBM YZTBFSH uYDPO, PDYO DV DTECHOEKYYI ZHYOYLYKULYI ZPTPDPCH, UNING B UPVPA DP 1100 DP Z. O. b HDETTSBCHYYK. yPUYZh zhMBChYK RYYEF, Fynes ON UUSCHMBSUSH, YUFP B 240 MEF DP UFTPYFEMSHUFCHB iTBNB uPMPNPOB XK PLPMP 1200 C, TSYFEMY uYDPOB, TBVYFSCHE GBTEN "BULBMPOGECH" (F. E. ZHYMYUFYNMSO "OBTPDPCH NPTS") UCHPYI UHDBI J PUOPCHBMY fYT ON VETSBMY. FP OE UPCHUEN CHETOP, RPPLUPMSHLH FYT CHPOYOLE ZPTBEDP BATTLE. chPNPTsOP, CHRTPYUEN, YUFP YUBUFSH TSYFEMEK uYDPOB RTPUFP RETEVTBMYUSH B fYT, CHPTPDYCH ZPTPD (1200 Z. DP O. b FYTULBS sil PFUYUYFSCHCHBMBUSH LBL TB.). yuETOPN NPTE J H mYChYY ON B RETCHSCHE RSFSH UFPMEFYK ZHYOYLYKGBNY VSCHMY PUOPCHBOSCH NOPZPYUYUMEOOSCHE LPMPOYY B zTEYuEULPN bTIYREMBZE. pLPMP 1200 Z. PD O. b. POOPHBOSCHV VShMY zyRRPO R BSTYLE TH DTHZJE ZPTPDB. RTGNOCHETCHOJA ZOLBOKXOCHAHOLA, SOURCE PHT, VSHUFTP TBYCHYYYUSH, RTYPVTEM L 1100 Z. DP O. b. THCP, FYTULYE PDYUYE UFTPYMY ITBN uPMPNPOB yETHUBMYNE B, B DEA iYTBN CHPDCHYZ B fYTE NOPZP ZTBODYPOSCHI RPUFTPEL.

rETYPD RPUME RTBCHMEOYS GBTS iYTBNB IBTBLFETYHEFUS RPMYFYYUEULPK OEUFBVYMSHOPUFSHA, RPUMHTSYCHYYK RTYYUYOPK RETEUEMEOYS W 814 C PD O. b. B lBTZhBZEO RTYOGEUUSCH MYUUSch (dYDPOSch) Uning OEUNEFOSCHNY VPZBFUFCHBNY, J VPMSHYEK YUBUFY BTYUFPLTBFYY. FPZP yilda CHTENEOY lBTZhBZEO UFBM VSCHUFTP TBCHYCHBFSHUS J CHULPTE UFBM UBNPUFPSFEMSHOSCHN ZPUHDBTUFCHPN, W FP CHTENS LBL LBL fYT UFBM RTYIPDYFSH HRBDPL W, ECE LBLPE-OP CHTENS HDETTSYCHBM B UPVPA THLPCHPDSEHA TPMSH ning OP Chueh CE.

rETAIL h 725 Z. DP O. b. RPDCHETZUS PUBDE GBTS BUUYTYKULPZP uBMNBOBUBTB V (726-722 P.O .. DP O. b.) DMYCHYEKUS FTY ZPDB, OP OE qayta ishlash zavodi VSCHFSH CHSF UYMPK, FBL LBL UK UFPTPOSCH NPTS PUFBCHBMUS PFLTSCHFSCHN. fYT UCHPY LPTBVMY YUYUMPN 60 ON fPZDB uBMNBOBUBT BUFBCHYM uYDPO J DTHZYE HTSE RPLPTEOOSCHE dH ZPTPDB RTEDPUFBCHYFSH ENH LCA OBRBDEOYS (YMY 16?), OP GBTSH FYTULYK MHMEK TBVYM YEE PF UCHPYNY CHUEZP MYYSH 12 LPTBVMSNY B RETCHPK NPTULPK VYFCHE, P LPFPTPK YCHEUFOP YUFPTYY. F FFP RTYNET OBZMSDOP YMMAUFTYTHEF'S NEFTPK UYMS. fYT CHSCHDETTSBM PUBDH oBChHIPDPOPUPTB, DMYCHYHAUS B FEYUEOYE 13 MEF (Y 586 PD 573 PO. DP O. b.) OD, W LPOGE LPOGPCH, Chueh CE UDBMUS. chRPUMEDUFChYY, W 332 C PD O. b., UFTBOH RPLPTYM bMELUBODT chEMYLYK, LPFPTPNH HDBMPUSH PCHMBDEFSH fYTPN RPUME UENYNEUSYUOPK PUBDSCH, B CHTENS LPFPTPK VSCHMB OBUSCHRBOB UPEDYOYFEMSHOBS DBNVB PF NBFETYLB A PUFTPCHH, UHEEUFCHHAEBS J DPOSCHOE. FP VSCHMP LPOGPN RPMYFYYUEULPZP OBYUEOYS ZHYOYLYKGECH; YEE SSCHL J Sing UBNY, LBL OBTPD, YUYUEMY CHRPUMEDUFCHYY, OE PUFBCHYCH RP UEVE OYLBLYI RBNSFOYLPCH. MYSH OBUFSKEZ OBKDEOP OEULPMSHLP ZOIYLIKULIY OBDRYEYUKNI QADRLAShADI.

yuFP LBUBEFUS UHDPUFTPEOYS ZHYOYLYKGECH X, OP ECPAT DHNBFSH, YUFP Sing RETCHSCHE UFBMY DEMBFSH TBMYYUYE NETSDH UHDBNY VHI TH CHPEOOSCHI LPNNETYUEULYI GEMEK. Yi FPTZPCHSCHE LPTBVMY VSCHMY PYUEOSH YYTPLYNY, J RPFPNH, B RTPFYCHPRPMPTSOPUFSH DMYOOSCHN CHPEOOSCHN UHDBN, OBSCHCHBMYUSH "LTHZMSCHNY" YMY "LBDLBNY" (ZTEYU. ZBHMPU) VPTFB VSCHMY PYUEOSH OYLYNY UTEDOEK YUBUFY H, OP GTC J LPTNB OBYUYFEMSHOP CHPCHSCHYBMYUSH CHPDPK HBS. oELPFPTSchE UHDB DPUFYZBMY CHEUSHNB OBYUYFEMSHOSCHI TBNETPCH, FBL, OBRTYNET, LPTBVMY DV fBTUB CHNEEBMY DP 500-600 YUEMPCHEL. rETEDChYTsEOYE PUHEEUFCHMSMPUSH ZMBCHOSCHN PVTBPN rty RPNPEY RBTHUPCH, OP B UMHYUBE OBDPVOPUFY J rty RPNPEY CHEUEM. DMS "BEYFISH PF RYTBFPH" LPTBVMY YOPZDB HAQIDA VTBMY PPYOCH. nBFETEYBMPN DMS LPTBVMEK YY NBYUF UMHTSYM LEDT. rPDOEE RPSCHYMUS NEOSHYYK TBNETBN RP, OP PVMBDBCHYYK VPMSHYPK VSCHUFTPIPDOPUFSHA ey LPNNETYUEULPZP J FTBOURPTFOPZP UHDOB. uxdb opfcrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr. bb 400 mef dp o. b. lUEOPZhPOF, ZPCHPTS P ZHYOYLYKGBI, PIBTBLFETYPCHBM YEE LBL RTELTBUOSCHI NPTSLPCH Q Do RPICHBMPK PFPCHBMUS PV PVTBGPCHPN RPTSDLE ON YEE LPTBVMSI.

h LBYuJChChE ChPEOshchI LPTBVMEK ZHOYOLEIKGSCHT RYNOSMY, retpl.METSHOP, YULMAYUFEMSHOP Sing uFTPYMYUSh DV VPMEE RTPYUOPZP, Yuen LEDT, J LYRBTYUPCHPZP DETECHB ULTERMSMYUSH NEDOSCHNY (PE YVETSBOYE TTSBCHYUYOSCH) ZCHPDSNY; DOYEB, CHETPSFOP, FPCE PYYCHBMYUSH NEDSHA DMS BBEYFSCH PF NPTULPK TPSDSCH. FBLEMBTS CHCHDEMSCHBBMUS RETCHPOBYUBMSHOP YF FTPUFILB, B ÁBFEN YR RBREYTHUB Y YR REULYA. yNEMYUSh UHDB DCHHI FYRPCH: FTYDGBFYCHEUEMSHOSCHE (FTYBLPOFETSCH - RP 15 CHEUEM VPTFB bor) J RSFYDEUSFYCHEUEMSHOSCHE (REOFELPOFETSCH - RP 25 CHEUEM VPTFB bor). UHDB UMXTSYMY DP 500 Z. DP O. b. B LBYUEUFCHE MYOEKOSCHI LPTBVMEK, B RPDOEE RTYNEOSMYUSH MYYSH B RETEDPCHSCHI PFTSDBI J LCA TBCHEDPYUOPK UMHTSVSCH.

cn DCHPTEGE GBTS UYOBIETIVYBB YNEEFUS PFOPUSEEEUUS L 700 Z. DP O. b. YPVTBTSEOYE ZHYOYLYKULPZP LPTBVMS HTSE DCHHNS TSDBNY CHEUEM (ZTEYU. DYETB, ICF. VYTENB) bor. tYUHOPL FPF, IPMF J CHSCHRPMOEO IHTSE, Yuen EZYREFULYK, MEF 900 ON LPFPTSCHK UFBTYE, OP Chueh CE DBEF RTEDUFBCHMEOYE PV PYUETFBOYSI UHDOB. rPDOEE ZHYOYLYKGSCH, B RTPFYCHPRPMPTSOPUFSH EZYRFSOBN, UFBMY UFTPYFSH UHDB PFCHEUOSCHN ZHPTYFECHOEN, UOBVTSEOOSCHN ON CHSCHUPFE CHBFETMYOYY PUFTSCHN FBTBOPN, OP EUFSH Sing OBYUBMY RTYNEOSFSH DEA LPTRHU UHDOB B LBYUEUFCHE OBUFHRBFEMSHOPZP PTHTSYS, YUFP CHOEUMP RETECHPTPF B NPTULHA CHPKOH bor.

dV CHUEZP ULBBOOPZP NPTSOP BLMAYUYFSH, YUFP ZHYOYLYKGSCH USCHZTBMY CHEMYLHA TPMSH YUFPTYY W, OP DE UFPMSHLP UCHPYNY CHPKOBNY, ULPMSHLP NPTERMBCHBOYEN. Soch quritish SAT NEOEE, FPF OBTPD, OEUPNOEOOP, VPZBFP PDBTEOOSCHK, B GEMPN OYLPZDB OE YNEM VPMSHYPZP RPMYFYYUEULPZP OBYUEOYS. FBL CE OEBNEFOP, LBL TPUMP VPZBFUFCHP J NPZHEEUFCHP ZHYOYLYKGECH, FY PFCHBTSOSCHE NPTEIPDSCH RPFETSMY UCHPA UBNPUFPSFEMSHOPUFSH, UDEMBMYUSH CHBUUBMBNY YUHTSEENOSCHI CHMBUFYFEMEK J, OBLPOEG, YUYUEMY LBL OBTPDOPUFSH. NPTE ON zhYOYLYKGSch OYLPZDB OE UFTENYMYUSH YUFYOOPNH CHMBDSCHYUEUFCHH. oBTSDH YEE HDYCHYFEMSHOPK UNEMPUFSHA B NPTERMBCHBOYSI BNEYUBFEMSHOP AF YUFP X OHYE UPCHETYEOOP OE VSCHMP CHPEOOPZP DHIB bor. rfcpdc chpko OBUFKhRBFEMSHOSCHI SOCH OE CHEMY OILPZDB. FBL, OBRTYNET Sing RPVETETSSHE bTIYREMBZB J yuETOPZP NPTS ON BNEFOPZP UPRTPFYCHMEOYS PFDBMY ZTELBN UCHPY NOPZPYUYUMEOOSCHE VPZBFSCHE CHMBDEOYS VE. yULMAYuEOYEN SCHYMUS MYYSH lBTZhBZEO, ZHYOYLYKULBS LPMPOYS B BRBDOPK YUBUFY uTEDYENOPZP NPTS, USCHZTBCHYBS OBYUYFEMSHOHA TPMSH B RPMYFYYUEULPK YUFPTYY.

zhYOYLYKGSch CHRPMOE BUMHTSYMY UCHPA ZYVEMSH, J YEE FTBZYYUEULYN HDEMPN VSCHMP AF YUFP, TH FEBFEMSHOPE UPLTSCHFYE UCHPYI OBOYK J UCHPYI NPTULYI RHFEK Sing UBNY CHPURYFBMY UEVE UPRETOYLPCH OF OEUNPFTS PUFPTPTSOPE - ZTELPCH.

bTIBUJEULBS ZTEGYS

rPD OBCHBOYEN "zTEGYS" OE UMEDHEF RPOYNBFSH UPCHTENEOOPE ZTEYUEULPE ZPUHDBTUFCHP yPOYKULYNY J KYLMBDULYNY PUFTPCHBNY bor. zTEGYS DTECHOYI CHTENEO UPUFPSMB, RPNYNP FPK FETTYFPTYY, CHUEI PUFTPCHPCH ZEKULPZP NPTS DV ECE lTYFPN J tPDPUPN, CHUEZP BRBDOPZP RPVETETSSHS nBMPK bYY A AZH PF zEMMEURPOFB, RPMHPUFTPCHB iBMLYDYLY ON ECHTPREKULPN VETEZH, B FBLTSE DV UPFEO LPMPOYK, ECE H PYUEOSH PFDBMEOOSCHE CHTENEOB PE zhTBLYY ning PUOPCHBOOSCHI bor , rTPRPOFYDE (nTBNPTOPE NPTE), CHLUYOULPNning portlashi haqida pFDEMShOSchE LPMPOYY, OBRTYNET, uYTBLHSch DPUFYZBMY VPMSHYPK UYMSCH J OBYUEOYS. OP FB YYTPLP TBULYOHFBS UEFSH LPMPOYK OYLPZDB OE VSCHMB EDYOSCHN ZPUHDBTUFCHPN.

tH ECHTPREKULPN BYBFULPN NBFETYLE PVYFBMY REMBUZY OF OEBRBNSFOSCHI CHTENEO, OBTPDOPUFSH TPDUFCHEOOBS ZTELBN ham. zhYOYLYKGSch PYUEOSH TBOP UFBMY RPUEEBFSH ZTEYUEULPE RPVETETSSHE TH ​​TH PUFTPCHB PUOPCHBMY PBN NOPZP RPUEMEOYK; LTPNE OHYE, ECE PDOB OBTPDOPUFSH ning FY NEUFB RPUEEBMB - LBTYKGSCH, PFYASCHMEOOSCHE NPTULYE TBVPKOYLY X LPFPTSCHI ZTELY NOPZP YUENH OBHYUYMYUSH.

tPDYOB RTEDLPCH ZTELPCH - nBMPBYKULBS NON EFFECT. YUBU dtcpc chp chfppk rpmpcchioe xii ufpmefis D.P. O. b. OEULPMSHLP ZTEYUEULYI RMENEO RETEUEMYMYUSH PFFHDB RETCHPOBYUBMSHOP zhEUUBMYA H J H dPTYDH uTEDOEK zTEGYY, B BFEN YUETE BIBKOM B mBLEDENPO, BCHPECHBCH LPFPTSCHK Sing PVTBPCHBMY mBLEDENPOULPE ZPUHDBTUFCHP UP UFPMYGEK uRBTFPK. PUFTPCHB bTIYREMBZB ON AZ YUETE NPTE OF rETEUEMEOYE RTPDPMTSBMPUSH J DBMEE, lTYF tPDPU J J Vt zBMYLBTOBU. uMEDUFChYEN FPZP VSCHMP OEPDOPLTBFOSCHE RETEUEMEOYE DTHZYI RMENEO, NBMPBYKULYK VETEZ XI-X H HH ON B YUBUFOPUFY YPOYKGECH J PMYKGECH DV bFFYLY PVTBFOP. DP O. b. aTsOBS YUBUFSH FPZP RPVETETSSHS, zde RPSCHYMPUSH DCHEOBDGBFSH OPCHSCHI ZPTPDPCH, DV LPFPTSCHI PUPVPE OBYUEOYE RTYPVTEMY nYMEF J ZhEU, RPMHYUYMB OBCHBOYE yPOYY, B UECHETOBS YUBUFSH, FPTSE DCHEOBDGBFSHA ZPTPDBNY bor - PMYDSch.

rTYOSFP ZPCHPTYFSH P "ZTELBI" FBL, LBL EDYOPN OBTPDE, PDOBLP B DEKUFCHYFEMSHOPUFY FPZP OYLPZDB OE VSCHMP. h ZPUHDBTUFCHEOOPN UNSCHUME ZTEYUEULYE RMENEOB VSCHMY PYUEOSH TBTPOEOSCH. pVEYNY X OHYE VSCHMY FPMSHLP SSCHL, J TEMYZYPOSCHE CHPTEOYS PRTEDEMEOOSCHE OBGYPOBMSHOSCHE YUETFSCH IBTBLFETB, TELP PFMYYUBCHYYE YEE PF DTHZYI UPCHTENEOOSCHI dH OBTPDPCH. dBTsE B UFTHLFHTE YEE SSCHLB BNEFOSCH FCHPTYUEULBS PUFTPFB NSCHYMEOYS, YUHCHUFCHP ZBTNPOYY J UFTENMEOYE A BOBMYH. DPTYKULHA, YPOYKULHA J PMYKULHA: pDOBLP, HTSE OBMYYUYE B ZEYUEULPN SSCHLE FTEI OBTEYUYK SCHMSEFUS DPLBBFEMSHUFCHPN FPZP, YUFP UBNPZP PFDBMEOOPZP CHTENEOY ZTELY OE VSCHMY PDOYN GEMSCHN OBTPDPN, B TBURBDBMYUSH ON FTY CHEFCHY bor. Soch quritish SAT NEOEE, SSCHL VSCHM UCHSHAEYN OBYUBMPN, ECE VPMSHYE HCHEMYYUYMPUSH ning OBYUEOYE LPFPTPZP TBURTPUFTBOEOYEN B VIII qism A. DP ibn bor. H J yPOYY PMYDE RPN zPNETB, UFBCHYYI DPUFPSOYEN Chueca ZTEYUEULPK LHMSHFHTSCH.

pvccd fBLYE TEMYZYPOSCHE RTBDOEUFCHB, RPCHFPTSCHYYEUS YUETE PRTEDEMEOOSCHE RTPNETSHFLY CHTENEOY (PF YUEFSCHTEI DP DECHSFY MEF) YNEMY UMEDUFCHYEN RPSCHMEOYE PVEEZP MEFPYUYUYUMEOYS, CHPOYLOPCHEOYS PVEEK ITBNPCHPK LBUUSCH, B FBLTSE PVHUMBCHMYCHBMY NYT NETSDH HYUBUFOYLBNY H FEYUEOYE CHUEI RTBDOEUFCH. chNEUFE Y quritish, Y CHCHEDEOYEN UHDB RPUTEDOYLPCH LCA HYUBUFOYLPCH UPAB UFBMY PVSBFEMSHOSCHNY OELPFPTSCHE RPMPTSEOYS, PFOPUYCHYYEUS A PVMBUFY NETSDHOBTPDOPZP RTBCHB: 1) SCDEP DV MMYOULYI RMENEO OE YNEMP RTBCHP TBTHYBFSH DP PUOPCHBOYS RPUEMEOYK DTHZPZP Q OH 2) ovoz X PDOPZP PUBTSDEOOPZP ZTEYUEULPZP ZPTPDB OE NPZMB VSCHFSH PFCHEDEOB NRBI fblcd CHBZOEKYNYY Y'FYYI UPPPCH VSHM DEMSJYKULYK, RPPCHEEEBROM BMPMMPOX. h TEHMSHFBFE CHESP LFPZP VII ChP DP O. b. UMPCHP "LMMYOSHCH" UFBMP PVAEN ZOBIUULPZP OBTPDB; CHEI DTXZYI, RTYOBDMECHCHII YE Rmeneoy, ZTELY tsBTCHBTBNYni obschchbmy.

rpdpvschtsep TYPHEMY YPOYKULYI LILMBDULYI PUUPHPPCH UPDDMMY H 800 Z. DP O. b. RDPPVOHA CA UCHSFSChAA PUFTCHE DEMPUE haqida; TSYFEMY 12 YPOYKULY ZPTPDPCHCH nBMPK BYUY UP'DBMY BOBOYPOYPO H PFTPZBI Mail NILBME FD

rizq-ro'zni tse cmyosoye pbbmby bfmefjuyeuliye ytstsch, rytykhtueyu novs temysypystochny rtbodoeufchbn. rPUFEREOOPE RTYUPEDYOEOYE TBMYYUOSCHI RMENEO A RTPYUIPDYCHYYN LBTSDSCHE YUEFSCHTE ZPDB pMYNRYKULYN YZTBN MYDE W, X DTECHOEKYEZP B rEMPRPOOEUE UCHSFYMYEB EChUB, YNEMP ZTPNBDOPE OBGYPOBMSHOPE OBYUEOYE. BBRJYUSH YNEO RPVEDYFEMEK CH YZTBI, CHPYYDYBS PS PYOSHYBK U OBBRBBNSHOSCHI CHTENEO, UFBMB RTPYCHPDYFSHUS TEZHMSTOP U 776 Z. D.P. YUFSCHTEIMEFOE RTPNECHFLY NEZD YTTBNY RPUMHYYYYY PYUCHBOYEN DMS YUFPTYUYULPZP MEFPYUYUUMOEYS ZTELCHCH, TH 776 Z. DP O. l. NPTSOP RTYOSFSH bB OBYUBMP ZTEUULPK YUFPTY.

oEUNPFTS FY ON UPASCH, UPDEKUFCHPCHBCHYYE PVYAEDYOEOYA OBGYY, OEPVSCHLOPCHEOOP UYMSHOP TBCHYFPE X ZTELPCH YUHCHUFCHP UBNPUFPSFEMSHOPUFY URPUPVUFCHPCHBMP DTPVMEOYA ZTELPCH ON NEMLYE, YOPZDB DBTSE PYUEOSH NEMLYE PVEYOSCH, LPFPTSCHE VSCHMY UPCHETYEOOP OEBCHYUYNSCHNY. FPF B CHSCHUYEK UFEREOY YOFEOUYCHOP RTPSCHYCHYYKUS RBTFYLHMSTYN, OE DPRHULBCHYYK UPUTEDPFPYUEOYS Foydalanuvchining profili Foydalanuvchining profili Chueca OBGYY DBTSE B UMHYUBE UBNPK LTBKOEK OEPVIPDYNPUFY, RPUMHTSYM RTYYUYOPK FPZP, YUFP FBLPK VPZBFP PDBTEOOSCHK OBTPD, LBL ZTELY, LPFPTSCHK qayta ishlash zavodi BCHMBDEFSH Chuen NYTPN, OE UPDBM NPEOPZP ZPUHDBTUFCHB.

pFUHFUFChYE PRTEDEMEOOSCHI UHIPRHFOSCHI ZTBOYG J DPZPCHPTPCH NETSDH PFDEMSHOSCHNY ZPUHDBTUFCHBNY, EUFEUFCHEOOP, Chapman L OEULPOYUBENSCHN TBDPTBN J DBTSE LTPCHPRTPMYFOSCHN CHPKOBN, DPIPDYCHYYN DP RPTBVPEEOYS YMY RPMOPZP YUFTEVMEOYS RPVETSDEOOSCHI ZPUHDBTUFCH. ChFB

pODOBLP, FBLBS TBBDTPVMEOOPUFSH ZTELPCH, RPLB YN EEE OE HZTPTSBMY UYMSHOCHE UPUEDY, DBTSE USCHZTBMB RPMPTSYEFEMSHOHA TPMSH. nHTsEUFChP J ITBVTPUFSH VSCHMY RTYUHEY ZTELBN PF RTYTPDSCH, OP LBYUEUFCHB FY NPZMY FPMSHLP TBCHYCHBFSHUS B HUMPCHYSI FPZDBYOEK TSYOY ZTEYUEULYI ZPUHDBTUFCH, LPZDB LBTSDSCHK UCHPVPDOSCHK ZTBTSDBOYO RTYOYNBM BLFYCHOPE HYUBUFYE B ZPUHDBTUFCHEOOPK TSYOY J UYUYFBM UCHPYN DPMZPN TSETFCHPCHBFSH LCA VMBZB J OEBCHYUYNPUFY TPDYOSCH chuen, OE YULMAYUBS J TSYOY. rfpnh zhoyuyeulpe tbchyufye th henee iptpyp chmbdefsh pttstyen vschmp gsmsh i zptdpufsha lbcdzp ztlb. NECDH NHTSYUYYYYP CHYEOPP UPTEKPCHBOYA FPN, UTRUPYFBCHIEE CHYOUFCHEOSHOSCHK DHI OBTPPB. Pop RETEYMP B UPTECHOPCHBOYE NETSDH PVEYOBNY YMY ZPUHDBTUFCHBNY, RPMYFYYUEULPE ON J RPUFPSOOPE CHBYNOPE PVEEOYE NETSDH Oýny CHMYSMP, OBHYUOPE, MYFETBFHTOPE J IHDPTSEUFCHEOOPE TBCHYFYE CHUEZP ZTEYUEULPZP OBTPDB, LPFPTPNH RPFPNUFCHP FBL VMBZPDBTOP B ZEOYBMSHOSCHE RTPYCHEDEOYS, RPLTSCHCHYYE hovuch ZTELPCH FPK RPY OEHCHSDBENPK UMBCHPK.

zEVAZE OBYuYFEMShOPE YUYUMP PUFTPCHPCH, NBUUB ZMHVPLP CHTEBCHYYIUS B VETEZ VHIF J BMYCHPCH, PFDEMSCHYYI PDOH PVMBUFSH PF DTHZPK J BFTHDOSCHYYI W FP CHTENS DPUFHR H FY PVMBUFY, ZPTSCH, PFDEMSCHYYE ECHTPREKULHA zTEGYA PF NBFETYLB - Chueh FP URPUPVUFCHPCHBMP VEPRBUOPUFY PFDEMSHOSCHI ZPUHDBTUFCH. rpmcpu PF TBDEMSCHYEZP FY PVMBUFY ZPTOPZP ITEVFB rYOBD A ZEKULPNH NPTA YDHF FTY OERTPIPDYNSCHI PFTPZB ON (2200 N) Q EZP RTPDPMTSEOYS AZ. yuETE UBNSCHK UECHETOSCHK dv OHYE, PFDEMSAEYK nBLEDPOYA PF zhEUUBMYY J PLBOYUYCHBAEYKUS RPYUFY X UBNPZP NPTS pMYNRPN, PLPMP 3000 N CHSCHUPFPA, YNEEFUS FPMSHLP PDYO RTPIPD A fENREKULPK DPMYOE, EUMY OE UYUYFBFSH FTEI FTPRYOPL, DPUFHROSCHI MYYSH LCA CHSHAYUOSCHI MPYBDEK. chFPTPK PFTPZ - pFYKULYK ITEVEF - YNEEF FPTSE FPMSHLP PDYO ZPTOSCHK RTPIPD ON CHSCHUPFE 800 H, Q, OBLPOEG, FTEFYK - UBNSCHK ATSOSCHK pFYKULYK ITEVEF H 2150 H CHSCHUPFPA LTHFP URHULBEFUS A BMYCHH, PUFBCHMSS MYYSH HLYK (B RTETSOEE CHTENS) zhETNPRYMShULYK RTPIPD, YYTYOPA H PDOH LPMEA. lTPNE FPZP RTPIPDB, UHEEUFCHPCHBMB MYYSH PDOB ZPTOBS FTPRYOLB YUETE ITEVEF. fBLYN PVTBPN, DPUFHR CHPKUL B UFTBOH VSCHM UYMSHOP BFTHDOEO, J H OEULPMSHLYI NEUFBI MEZLP NPTSOP VSCHMP PFTBYFSH OERTYSFEMS, DBTSE RTECHPUIPDYCHYEZP ZTELPCH RP UCHPYN UYMBN.

uECHETE zhTBLYA J nBLEDPOYA OBUEMSMY H CHTENS CHPYOUFCHEOOSCHE o'p, OP UMBVSCHE RMENEOB, OBUFHRMEOYS LPFPTSCHI OEYUEZP VSCHMP PRBUBFSHUS bo'yicha; OBRBAYOS URBAN

uTeSafe fblcpc TBCHYFYY ZPUHDBTUFCHEOOPK TSYOY ON Chueh FP PFTBTSBMPUSH, RTYYUEN VMYLPE UPUEDUFCHP RPVHTSDBMP ZTEYUEULYE RMENEOB A BYNUFCHPCHBOYSN DTHZ X DTHZB. "FPM"

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rPMS URBTFBOGECH CHPDEMSCHCHBMYUSH RPLPTEOOSCHNY YNY RTETSOYNY TSYFEMSNY UFTBOSCH (YMPFBNY) PVSBOOSCHNY HRMBYUYCHBFSH YUBUFSH HTPTSBS UCHPYN CHMBUFYFEMSN. ipfsch psi vMBZPDBTS FPNH, YMPFSCH LBTSDHA NYOHFH VSCHMY ZPFPCHSCH A CHPUUFBOYA J FTEVPCHBMY UBNPZP UFTPZP RTYUNPFTB UP UFPTPOSCH URBTFBOGECH. h NYTOPE CHTENS PTHTSYE dH UPCHUEN OE DPCHETSMPUSH, NPTE ON UHYE MEZLP CHPPTHTSEOOSCHNY, B B CHPEOOPE CHTENS Sing CHSCHUFHRBMY - ZTEVGBNY.

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vIII VII XH. DP O. b. RTPYPYMY LTHROSCHE LPOPNYYUEULYE RETENEOSCH, CHSCHCHBOOSCHE NPTERMBCHBOYEN J FPTZPCHMEK, TSYOSH bZhYO ON LPFPTSCHE PLBBMY VPMSHYPE CHMYSOYE. tBChYFYA ZTEYUEULPZP UHDPIPDUFCHB PYUEOSH VMBZPRTYSFUFCHPCHBMY ZEPZTBZHYYUEULPE RPMPTSEOYE J LMYNBFYYUEULYE HUMPCHYS zTEGYY: YNEOOP PVYMYE PUFTPCHPCH, ZMHVPLYE BMYCHSCH, VPMSHYPE YUYUMP BLTSCHFSCHI VHIF J ZBCHBOEK, IPTPYBS RPZPDB OP UFYIBAEYE A CHEYUETH, J RTBCHYMSHOSCHE sog'ish CHEUOSCH DP PUEOY, DHAEYE Chueh MEFP UECHETOSCHE CHEFTSCH, YUBUFP UCHETSYE bor VTYSCH, B FBLTSE VMBZPRTYSFOBS LCA NPTERMBCHBOYS RTPTBYUOPUFSH CHPDHIB. RHFY YTZTEGYY HAQIDA CHCHUPLYE PUUPTPCHBB CHYZEKLPN NPTE zTELY, HTSE YDBCHOB BOYNBCHYYEUS UHDPIPDUFCHPN, IPMF J H PYUEOSH OEVPMSHYYI TBNETBI, RETEOSMY YULHUUFCHP UHDPUFTPEOYS J NPTERMBCHBOYS PF ZHYOYLYKGECH. rty UCHPYI URPUPVOPUFSI Sing ULPTP DPZOBMY UCHPYI HYUYFEMEK, OP Chuy CE HUFHRBMY RPUMEDOYN H YULHUUFCHP LPTBVMEUFTPEOYS J UNEMPUFY; Sing PYUEOSH TEDLP CHSCHIPDYMY B RTEDEMSCH zETLHMEUPChSchI uFPMVPCh, TH, RP YEE UPVUFCHEOOPNH RTYOBOYA, RETCHPN NEUFE PE chuen ON ZHYOYLYKGSCH PUFBMYUSH, YUFP LBUBMPUSH NPTULPZP Dembo.

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oPChPK NETPK PITBOSCH ZPUHDBTUFCHEOOPZP UFTPS SCHYMUS UHD PVEYN ZPMPUPCHBOYEN ZTBTSDBO rty RPNPEY YUETERLPCH (PUFTBLYN) HUFBOPCHMEOOSCHK LCA PRBUOSCHI H ZPUHDBTUFCHEOOPN PFOPYEOYY MENEOFPCH, YZPOSCHYYIUS FBLYN RHFEN ON DEUSFSH MEF DV RTEDEMPCH ZPUHDBTUFCHB. rpdcdhhhhhhtochsch puftyblnh oi ynem rtbcb ptsvmbchboys. yuETE DCHB NEUSGB RPUME RHVMYYUOPZP PUHTSDEOYS RPUFHRLPCH LBLPZP-MYVP ZTBTSDBOYOB B OBTPDOPN UPVTBOYY UFBCHYMUS ON BLTSCHFPE ZPMPUPCHBOYE CHPRTPU PV EZP YZOBOYY, ZMYOSOSCHI YUETERLBI ON RTYYUEN YNS CHYOPCHOPZP RYUBMPUSH. DME YZOBOZE, PODBLP, OEPVIPDYNP VSHMPPVVTBFSH OE NEOEI 6000 ZPMPUPCH. h RPUMEDOEN UMHYUBE PUHTSDEOOSCHK DPMTSEO VSCHM RPLYOHFSH ZPUHDBTUFCHP H DEUSFYDOECHOSCHK AFLT. FP YZOBOYE OE UYUYFBMPUSH RPPTOSCHN, J YNHEEUFCHP YZPOSENPZP PUFBCHBMPUSH OERTYLPUOPCHEOOSCHN. fBLPK URPUPV DBCHBM CHPNPTSOPUFSH HDBMSFSH DV ZPUHDBTUFCHB PRBUOSCHI MYG LTPCHPRTPMYFYS J VEURPTSDLPCH VE. RETCHEN MYGPN, JVOZOBOSCHN FBLYN PVTBPN, PLBBMUS UBN lMYUZHEO.

bLPOSch lMYUZhEOB, DBCHYYE Chuen ZTBTSDBOBN TBCHOSCHE RTBCHB, UCHPVPDH UMPCHB J ZPMPUB B TEYEOYSI ZPUHDBTUFCHEOOSCHI DEM J PFLTSCHCHYYE RHFSH LCA CHUEI URPUPVOSCHI MADEK, UYMSHOP RPDOSMY OBTPDOPE UBNPUPOBOYE J MAVPCHSH A PFEYUEUFCHH. ECE J DTHZYE PVUFPSFEMSHUFCHB ning tPUFH NPZHEEUFCHB bZhYO UPDEKUFCHPCHBMY. h 509 Z. DP O. b. ZPTPD rMBFES PFDEMYMUS PF VEPFYKULPZP UPAB J RTYNLOHM A bZhYOBN, PFYUEZP FETTYFPTYS BZHYOULPZP ZPUHDBTUFCHB HCHEMYYUYMBUSH DP TELY bPRB. uRBTFB, LBL OPUYFEMSHOYGB ZTEYUEULPK ZEZENPOYY, UPYUMB UEVS CHSCHOHTSDEOOPK UOPCHB PVYASCHYFSH CHPKOH DENPLTBFYYUEULYN bZhYOBN J lMYUZhEOH. rETChBS RPRSCHFLB B FPN OBRTBCHMEOYY OE HDBMBUSH, B lMYUZhEO, PFRTBCHYCHYYKUS YZOBOYE W, W CHETOHMUS bZhYOSch. h 507 Z. DP O. b. URBT-A-1 oEUPZMBUYS LPNBODHAEYI REMPRPOEUULYNY CHPKULBNY RTYCHEMY A FPNH, YUFP RPUMEDOYE PLPMP MEChUYOSch TBDEMYMYUSH, J BZHYOSOE TBVYMY UOBYUBMB ZHYCHBOGECH, B BFEN J IBMLYDSO. rPUMEDOYE VSCHMY CHSCHOHTSDEOSCH HUFHRYFSH RPVEDYFEMSN OBYUYFEMSHOHA YUBUFSH UCHPEK FETTYFPTYY, J LHDB RETEUEMYMYUSH 4000 BZHYOULYI ZTBTSDBO. rPUMEDOYK BNSCHUEM URBTFBOGECH - UDEMBFSH CHSCHCHBOOPZP DV uYZEHNB zYRRYS FYTBOPN B bZhYOBI - OE HDBMUS, RPFPNH YUFP UPAOYLY PFLBBMYUSH RPDDETTSBFSH FP RTEDRTYSFYE, YEDYEE B TBTE bor RPMYFYLPK URBTFBOGECH J RTPFYCHOPE ZTEYUEULPNH dhih. FBLIN PVTBPN, L 500 Z. DP O. b. BJYOSCH DPUFYZMIY UCHPEK OBYVPMSHYEK CHOHFTEOOEK NPEY. mYYSh B NPTULPK VPTSHVE Men UYMSHOSCHN ZHMPFPN, bZhYOSch VSCHMY VEUUYMSHOSCH, RPULPMSHLH UCHPECHTENEOOP OE UZHPTNYTPCHBMY UPVUFCHEOOSCHK UYMSHOSCHK ZHMPF VPMEE, PUFTPCHPN ZYOPK bor.

bOLALAR BIEENOUDCH

h FP CHTENS ZTEYUEULPNH NYTH UFBMB ZTPYFSH OPCHBS PRBUOPUFSH, OBDCHYZBCHYBSUS DV ZMHVYOSCH bYY NPTA A, B YNEOOP RETUSCH, SDI ZTEYUEULPK YUFPTYY OF UFBCHYYE ON RTPFSTSEOYY OEULPMSHLYI CHELPCH OBYVPMEE PRBUOSCHNY CHTBZBNY ZTELPCH J PLBBCHYYE VPMSHYPE CHMYSOYE. dChYZBSUSh DV mYDYY, RETUSCH DPMTSOSCH VSCHMY, RTETSDE CHUEZP, RPLPTYFSH NBMPBYKULYI ZTELPCH. mYDYKULYE GBTY HTSE PF CHTENEO RETCHPZP GBTS zYZB, UDEMBCHYEZP W 690 C PD O. b. UFTBOH OEBCHYUYNPK PF BUUYTYKULPZP CHMBDSCHYUEUFCHB J UPDBCHYEZP PVYYTOPE ZPUHDBTUFCHP, CHBTSOPN LCA OHYE NBMPBYKULPN RPVETETSSHE ON RTYOBCHBMY VPMSHYPE OBYUEOYE NPTULYI UOPYEOYK J RPFPNH UFTENYMYUSH A CHMBDEOYA ZBCHBOSNY. dH HDBMPUSH BCHMBDEFSH NEUFOPUFSHA fTPEK, RPUME YUEZP Sing OBYUBMY VPTSHVH ZTEYUEULYNY ZPUHDBTUFCHBNY ega; OELPFPTSHCHYY Y OYI, OBRTYNET, NBZOEYYS Y UNIT, UHT RMPTESOCH VA HEYUFPTECOS. nYMEF CE HUREYOP CHSCHDETTSBM PDYOOBDGBFYMEFOAA PUBDH, VMBZPDBTS ZHMPFH, RPCHPMSCHYENH ENH UCHPVPDH NPTULYI UOPYEOYK, J BLMAYUYM H Z. 605 JP O. b. NYT UMIDEK. h FP CHTENS TBURBMBUSH bUUYTYS, J MYDYKULYK GBTSH bMYBFF (609-561 PO DP O. b ..) PLBBMUS CHSCHOHTSDEOOSCHN LCA BEYFSCH UCHPEZP GBTUFCHB ON CHPUFPLE OBYUBFSH CHPKOH NYDSOBNY ega; ENH HDBMPUSH HDTZBFSH RPD UCHPEK ChMBUFSHENYY CHRMPFSh DP TELY ZBMYUB. OBBBRBDE OBUFXRYMPBFYYSHE.

rPOFE Q PQ Chueca CHPUFPYUOPK YUBUFY uTEDYENOPZP NPTS ON l FPNH CHTENEOY ZTEYUEULYE NBMPBYKULYE ZPTPDB, CHEDS FPTZPCHMA eZYRFE H, mYChYY, J CHSCHFEUOYCH PFPCHUADH OBYUBCHYYI RTYIPDYFSH H HRBDPL ZHYOYLYKGECH, DPUFYZMY OBYVPMSHYEZP TBUGCHEFB. oBUMEDPChBChYYK bMYBFFH LTE (PO 560-546. DP O. b.) CHPPVOPCHYM RMBOPNETOHA VPTSHVH ZTELBNY J RPMPTSYM LPOEG YEE UBNPUFPSFEMSHOPUFY bor. pYuEOSh GEOS ZTEYUEULHA LHMSHFHTH J TSEMBS RTYPVEYFSH A OEK MYDYKGECH TOMONIDAN RPTSETFCHPCHBM B RPMSHH DEMSHZHYKULPZP ITBNB OEPVSCHYUBKOP GEOOSCHE RPDBTLY, RTYOYNBM HYUBUFYE B pMYNRYKULYI YZTBI, RPUSCHMBS FHDB UCHPYI RTEDUFBCHYFEMEK, Q NIMA DTHTSVH bMLNEPOYDBNY bor. OP ENH UMYYLPN SUOSCH VSCHMY CHSCHZPDSCH PVMBDBOYS NBMPBYKULYN RPVETETSSHEN, LCA FPZP YUFPVSCH PUFBCHYFSH EZP OEBCHYUYNSCHN. rpcpc h 546 Z. DP O. b. VSCHM PUBTSDEO B uBTDBI RETUBNY, CHSF B RMEO J UCHETZOHF IN RTEUFPMB GBTEN RETUPCH lYTPN bor. VSHMB PTTBEKOB R RETUIDULXA RTPCHYOGYA O'RNATISH. rTPFYCh RETUPCH CHPUUFBMY YPOYKULYE ZPTPDB, B YULMAYUEOYEN nYMEFB, LPFPTSCHK RTEDRPYUEM DPZPCHPTYFSHUS RETUBNY, PUFBMSHOSCHE CE ZPTPDB OE UPEDYOYMYUSH LCA UPCHNEUFOPK BEYFSCH PF RETUYDULPK PRBUOPUFY, J PDYO B DTHZYN VSCHMY BCHPECHBOSCH J RPDCHETZMYUSH VPMEE YMY NEOEE REYUBMSHOPK HYUBUFY bor. zhPLEKGSch, TSEMBS RTEDPFCHTBFYFSH RPDPVOSCHK YUIPD, TEYYMY RPLYOHFSH UCHPK ZPTPD; RPZTHYCH YNHEEUFCHP J UENSHY ON LPTBVMY, RPYULY OPCHSCHI ENEMSH ON B YUYUME RSFYDEUSFY REOFELPOFET Sing PFRTBCHYMYUSH. TH lPTUYLE BOSMYUSH NPTULYN TBVPEN oe VHDHYUY RTYOSFSCH UCHPYNY UPRMENEOOYLBNY ON iYPUE Sing PFRTBCHYMYUSH B bMBMYA. OHYE LBTZHBZEOSO J FTHULPCH ON FP CHSCHCHBMP UPCHNEUFOPE OBRBDEOYE, TEHMSHFBFPN YUEZP VSCHMB VYFCHB rty bMBMYY (537 C PD O. b W.). hppvcrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrv FIS CE UBNPE RTPYPYMP TSYFEMSNY YPOYYUEULPZP ZPTPDB fEPUB, PUOPCHBCHYYNY CHRPUMEDUFCHYY bVDETH PE zhTBLYY bor. PFBMSHOSCHE ZPTPDB OE RPUMEDPCHBMY FYNN RTYNETBN. dBTsE OELPFPTSCHE PUFTPCHB RPDYUYOYMYUSH RETUBN, OEUNPFTS ON PFUHFUFCHYE X FEI ZHMPFB, J FPMSHLP LBTYKULYE ZPTPDB PLBBMY PFYUBSOOPE UPRTPFYCHMEOYE.

rPUME UNETFY lYTB, RPUMEDPCHBCHYEK W 525 C PD O. b., ENH OBUMEDPCHBM lBNVY, RTEDRTYOSCHYYK BCHPECHBOYE eZYRFB. rPLPTEOOSchE ZHYOYLYKGSCH J NBMPBYKULYE ZTELY VSCHMY CHSCHOHTSDEOSCH RTEDPUFBCHYFSH B TBURPTSTSEOYE RETUPCH UCHPY LPTBVMY. rty RPNPEY UPDBOOPZP FBLYN RHFEN ZHMPFB, J rty HYUBUFYY RTEDCHPDYFEMS ZTEYUEULYI OBENOYLPCH zhBOES, lBNVY UDEMBMUS CHMBUFYFEMEN eZYRFB. rPUME EZP UNETFY, RPUMEDPCHBCHYEK W 522 C PD O. b., GBTEN rETUYY UDEMBMUS dBTYK zYUFBUR.

l Fyn CHPKOBN YNEEF OELPFPTPE PFOPYEOYE rPMYLTBF, UBNPUULYK FYTBO, BUMHTSYCHBAEYK HRPNYOBOYS, LBL RTEDUFBCHYFEMSH ZTEYUEULPZP NPTULPZP NPZHEEUFCHB. UBNGU, UDBI pFEG rPMYLTBFB, OBYUBMSHOYL UBNPUULPZP ZHMPFB, RPDOSM CHPUUFBOYE RTPFYCH BTYUFPLTBFYYUEULPZP RTBCHMEOYS, UCHETZOHM EZP J UDEMBMUS FYTBOPN. RUME EZP UNETFY CHMBUFSH RETEYMB L FTEN EZP USCHOPCHSHSN. rPMYLTBF HVYM PDOPZP VTBFB, YZOBM DTHZPZP J UDEMBMUS EDYOUFCHEOOSCHN RTBCHYFEMEN (536 C PD O. b W.). PvMBDB FBLYN ZHMPFPN yilda, HBS NPTEN BY UFBM CHEUFY NPTULPK TBVPK ON Chuen bTIYREMBZE GBTUFCHHS: OBMBZBM DBOSH ON RPTFPCHSCHE ZPTPDB, RPVEDYM NYMEFGECH J MEUVPUGECH, TBTHYYM UPRTPFYCHMSCHYYEUS ENH ZPTPDB, BCHPECHBM Dempo J RTYMETSBCHYYE A OENH PUFTPCHB J PCHMBDEM Chuen bTIYREMBZPN; DBTSE OBNETECHBMUS PUOPCHBFSH ZTELP-YPOYKULYK NPTULPK UPA PF UCHSEEOOSCHN PUFTPCHPN dEMPUPN B LBYUEUFCHE EZP GEOFTB IN; UDBPU

oe Ynes UPRETOYLPCH ON NPTE, rPMYLTBF, quritish OE NEOEE, PRBUBMUS RETUYDULPZP NPZHEEUFCHB. rPFPNH IN RTEDMPTSYM lBNVYH PE CHTENS RPIPDB RTPFYCH EZYREFULPZP GBTS bNBUYUB, RPUBDYM UCHPYI RPMYFYYUEULYI RTPFYCHOYLPCH IN LPFPTSCHE ON UCHPEZP RTETSOEZP DTHZB J UPAOYLB, ULBDTH DV UPTPLB LPTBVMEK, DHNBS YVBCHYFSHUS PF OHYE. RHFY B eZYREF RPUMEDOYE CHVHOFPCHBMYUSH J, CHETOHCHYYUSH PVTBFOP, TBVYMY rPMYLTBFB, CHSCHYEDYEZP dH OBCHUFTEYUH PE ZMBCHE PUFBCHYEZPUS ZHMPFB to'g'risida. OP LCA CHSFYS uBNPUB X OHYE OE ICHBFBMP Foydalanuvchining profili Foydalanuvchining profili, J Vt Sing PVTBFYMYUSH uRBTFH B RPNPESHA RTPFYCH FYTBOB, J LBLPCHBS VSCHMB PLBBOB dH uRBTFPK J lPTYOZhPN. uRBTFBOGSch CHRETCHSCHE RTEDRTYOSMY NPTULPK RPIPD, PLPOYUYCHYYKUS OEHDBYUEK. uPAOYLY PUBDYMY rPMYLTBFB B EZP HLTERMEOOPN ZPTPDE, RTELTBUOP CHSCHDETTSBCHYEN Chueh YEE YFHTNSCH, J VSCHMY CHSCHOHTSDEOSCH YUETE UPTPL UOSFSH PUBDH sog'ish. oERPUTEDUFChEOOBS PRBUOPUFSH LCA rPMYLTBFB NYOPCHBMB, OP X OEZP HTSE OE VSCHMP ZHMPFB TH, RPUFTPKLH OPCHPZP ON TH DEOEZ. hrnpc RPMILTBF DBM UEVS PDHTBUYFSH TH RPEIBM; UHMXM UICHBYuO va TBURSF UChUN TUG'ILGAN RP UChUN LTEFE HAQIDA. FBL BLPOYUYMUS VPZBFSCHK UPVSCHFYSNY J VMEUFSEYK RETYPD UBNPUULPZP NPTULPZP NPZHEEUFCHB.

uBNPUULBS ULBDTB, PFUFHRYCHYBS PF uBNPUB CHNEUFE LPTYOZHSOBNY J URBTFBOGBNY, OBZTBVMEOOHA DPVSCHYUH RTYPVTEMB B UPVUFCHEOOPUFSH PUFTPCH zYDTH OF UBNPUFPSFEMSHOP OBYUBMB BOYNBFSHUS NPTULYN TBVPEN TH, RP UCHPENH RPMPTSEOYA PYUEOSH VMBZPRTYSFOSCHK LCA BOSFYS RYTBFUFCHPN bor. TH ZTBVYMY UHDB z RTPDPMTSEOYE RSFY MEF TBVPKOYLY RPSCHMSMYUSH B ZBCHBOY lYDPOYY lTYFE. chEUShNB IBTBLFETOSCHN LCA HUMPCHYK FPZDBYOEZP NPTERMBCHBOYS NPTSOP UYUYFBFSH OP PVUFPSFEMSHUFCHP, YUFP LCA YUFTEVMEOYS UBNPUULYI NPTULYI TBVPKOYLPCH RPFTEVPCHBMYUSH UPEDYOEOOSCHE HUYMYS ZHMPFPCH ZYOSch J lTYFB.

dBTIK CHUFRRRM RTEUFPM HA 522 Z. DP O. b. DCHBDGBFY CHPUSHNY MEF PF TPDH, HUFTBOYCH RTEDCHBTYFEMSHOP UCHPEZP UPRETOYLB. h EZP TBURPTSTSEOYY PLBBMPUSH OEPVYASFOPE ZPUHDBTUFCHP, RTPUFYTBCHYEEUS lBChLBB PD PD Q PD ZhYPRYY uTEDYENOPZP NPTS DP yODYY; UCHSSH NETSDH PFDEMSHOSCHNY YUBUFSNY ZPUHDBTUFCHB VSCHMB PYUEOSH UMBVB, J RPUFPSOOP, PBN AF, AF DEUSH, CHURSCHIYCHBMY CHPUUFBOYS. dBTYA RPFTEVPCHBMPUSH B FEYUEOYE NOPZYI MEF CHEUFY CHPKOSCH, VSCHM RTYOBO GBTEN RPCHUADH IN RTETSDE Yuen.

20 PVMBUFEK ON dBTYK TBDEMYM UCHPE GBTUFCHP (UBFTBRYK), RP OBTPDOPUFSN, RTEDPUFBCHYCH dH UCHPVPDH CHETPYURPCHEDBOYS J NEUFOPE UBNPHRTBCHMEOYE. cpu-3 uVPTPN RPDBFEK CHEDBMP UREGYBMSHOPE HYUTETSDEOYE, UPUFBCHMEOOPE DV YUYOPCHOYLPCH, FEBFEMSHOP RPDZPFPCHMEOOSCHI A BDNYOYUFTBFYCHOPK DESFEMSHOPUFY. dBTYK CHCHEM RPENEMSHOSCHE OBMPZY Q Do FPK GEMSHA CHEMEM YNETYFSH UFTBOH J CHSCHSUOYFSH DPIPDOPUFSH ENEMSH. FY RPENEMSHOSCHE OBMPZY B PVEEN DPUFYZBMY RTYVMYYFEMSHOP 14560 FBMBOFPCH. UPDETTSBOYE GBTULPZP DCHPTB, RPYMYOSCH TH FD DV PUFBFLPCH dBTYK PVTBPCHBM ZPUHDBTUFCHEOOSCHK ZHPOD ON ECE RPUFHRMEOYS l FPK UHNNE ECPAT RTYUPEDYOYFSH. V BW ChF dPTPZB DV UFPMYGSCH UH DP uBTD VSCHMB DMYOPA 2445 LYMPNEFTPCH ×, DV UH H nBTBLBODH (uBNBTLBOD) - 2500 LYMPNEFTPCH. yuETE LBTSDSCHE 22 LYMPNEFTB OBIPDYMBUSH RPYUFPCHBS UFBOGYS ZPUFYOYGEK J MPYBDSHNY LCA RETENEOSCH bor. dPTPZY UMHTSYMY, ZMBCHOSCHN PVTBPN, LCA RPYUFSCH, B BFEN HTSE LCA RETECHPLY MADEK J FPCHBTPCH; VHI RTPEJDY YUKHI UBTDShch FTVPCHBMPUSH 90 DOEK. OP LKHTSHET DEMBM FFP RHFSH, TbKhneefus, NOPZP ULPTEK.

uPCHETYEOOP OPCHSCHI OBYUBMBI ON chPEOOSchE UYMSCH VSCHMY PTZBOYPCHBOSCH dBTYEN: CHPKULP DEMYMPUSH ON DCHBDGBFSH PFDEMPCH (LPTRHUPCH) TBURPMPTSEOOSCHI RP Chuen DCHBDGBFY PVMBUFSN. lPTRHUB FY RPDYUYOSMYUSH OE UBFTBRBN, LBL FP VSCHMP RPDOEE, B RETYPD HRBDLB rETUYY, B PUPVSCHN CHPEOBYUBMSHOYLBN, OBOBYUBCHYYNUS UBNYN GBTEN. uBFTBR, PDOBLP, DPMTSEO VSCHM BVPFYFSHUS P UPDETTSBOYY CHPKUL, FBL LBL TSBMPCHBOSHS dH CHSCHDBCHBMPUSH OE. ChPKULB TBDDEMSMYUSH RAPMECHE HAQIDA ZBTOYPOPCHO; RPUMEDOYE PUFBCHBMYUSH Chueh CHTENS ON NEUFE, FPZDB LBL RETCHSCHE RPDMETSBMY ETSEZPDOSCHN UNPFTBN, RTPYCHPDYCHYYNUS YMY UBNYN GBTEN YMY CE BUMHTSEOOSCHN CHPEOOSCHN OBYUBMSHOYLPN. FJI GEMSI ZPUHDBTUFCHPP FBLCE DEMYMPUSH OEULPMShLP PLTHZPCH haqida.

oBYMHYuYYNY CHPKULBNY UYUYFBMBUSH ZCHBTDYS GBTS, UPUFPSCHYBS DV DCHHI LPTRHUPCH RP 10,000 YUEMPCHEL, NYDYKULPZP J RETUYDULPZP. RPM, RPUFPSUP pUFBMShOBS REIPFB VSCHMB CHPPTHTSEOB THYUOSCHN NEFBFEMSHOSCHN PTHTSYEN, LBL-OP: MHLBNY J RTBEBNY; FSKEMPCHPPTHCEEUCHAU UOBVTSBMYUSH LPRSNY I LPTPFLNY NYUBNY.

lPOOYGB, TH FSTSEMHA MEZLHA, VSCHMB PYUEOSH NOPZPYUYUMEOOB J UYUYFBMBUSH MHYUYYN TPDPN CHPKUL OF TBDEMSCHYBSUS; YNEMYUSH FBLZE LPMEOUYGSHCH. lTPNE RPUFPSOOSCHI CHPKUL, ECE J PRPMYUEOYE B PUPVSCHI UMHYUBSI RTYSCHCHBMPUSH, LPFPTPE VSCHMP PYUEOSH NOPZPYUYUMEOOP J LPNRMELFPCHBMPUSH UBNSCHNY TBOPPVTBOSCHNY OBTPDOPUFSNY.

pTZBOYBGS VSKI cpc a Chueh DEKUFCHYE FBLPZP YUEFSCHTEIHZPMSHOYLB BLMAYUBMPUSH B OBFYULE Chueca NBUUPK, CHPNPTSOPUFSH NBOECHTYTPCHBOYS YULMAYUBMBUSH. mEZLBS REIPFB J UFTEMLY RPNEEBMYUSH NETSDH ZMHVPLYNY LPMPOOBNY - ECE FBLFYLB lYTB ning FP VSCHMB. eUMY UFTPK OBTHYBMUS, CHUMEDUFCHYE OETPCHOPK RPYUCHSCH YMY RTECHPUIPDUFCHB OERTYSFEMS, J RTYIPDYM VEURPTSDPL W, OP Chueh CHPKULP, UPUFPSCHYEE DV TBOPTPDOSCHI YUBUFEK J PVMBDBCHYEE NBMPK CHSCHDETTSLPK, MEZLP PICHBFSCHCHBMPUSH RBOYLPK, B PUPVEOOPUFY CE EUMY OBTSDH TEZHMSTOSCHNY CHPKULBNY OBIPDYMPUSH PRPMYUEOYE bor. h PVMBUFSH FBLFILE dBTIK OE CHOEU OILBLIY YYNEOEOIK.

uPDBFSh RETUYDULYK ZHMPF, rty OERTYZPDOPUFY RETUPCH A NPTULPK UMHTSVE J PFUHFUFCHYY UPPFCHEFUFCHHAEEK FTBDYGYY, OE RTEDUFBCHMSMPUSH CHPNPTSOSCHN. rnpcnc Sing VSCHMY CHSCHOHTSDEOSCH DETTSBFSH B ZPFPCHOPUFY VPMSHYYE ZHMPFSCH, YUFP, TBHNEEFUS, FTEVPCHBMP VPMSHYYI UTEDUFCH.

p 513 Z. DP O. b. dBTYK RTEDRTYOSM RPIPD RTPFYCH ULYZHPCH, PE CHTENS LPFPTPZP RETUSCH CHRETCHSCHE RTYYMY B UPRTYLPUOPCHEOYE ECHTPREKULYNY ZTELBNY ega; FPF RPIPD UMEDHEF UYUYFBFSH RTEDYEUFCHEOOYLPN CHPKO ZTELBNY, RPMHYUYCHYYI OBCHBOYE "RETUYDULYI CHPKO" bor.

dBTYK UPVTBM LCA FPZP RPIPDB CHPKULP YUYUMEOOPUFSHA B 700 000 YUEMPCHEL J RTYLBBM RPDYUYOEOOSCHN ENH NPTULYN ZPUHDBTUFCHBN RTYZPFPCHYFSH ZHMPF LPTBVMEK B 600; LTPNE FPZP, YPOYKGBN VSCHMP RTYLBBOP CHSFSH UPVPK YOTSEOETPCH J Chueh YNECHYYEUS FPZDB CHURPNPZBFEMSHOSCHE FEIOYYUEULYE UTEDUFCHB bor.

pn NPUFH, UPPTHTSEOOPNH ZTEYUEULYN UFTPYFEMEN, CHPKULP RETEYMP YUETE vPUZhPT J UFBMP DCHYZBFSHUS A Dhobi, PRHUFPYBS Chueh ON UCHPEN RHFY. JMPF DPMTSEO VCHM RTVSCHFSHL L KHUFSHA DHOBS RTSNP Yb chybofeys. hUFShE TELY PLBBMPUSH OERTYZPDOSCHN LCA RETEIPDB CHPKUL, NY Sing W RTPDPMTSEOYE DCHHI RTPDCHYZBMYUSH CHDPMSH TELY sog'ish. RETEKDS DOBOB, dBTYK PLBBMUS H UFBBOE ULIShCH; YEE CHPKULB RTEDUFBCHMSMY UPVPK MEZLHA LBCHBMETYA J RTPCHPDYMY FH CE UBNHA UFTBFEZYA, YUFP J THUULYE B CHPKOE 1812 C, ECE VPMEE RPUMEDPCHBFEMSHOP EKMEKÇİ W oBRPMEPOPN ega; OE DPCHPDS Demba DP UTBTSEOYS Sing PFUFHRBMY B OEULPMSHLYI OBRTBCHMEOYSI, BFEN PLTHTSBMY OERTYSFEMS, BFTHDOSS ENH RPDCHP RTYRBUPCH J OBOPUS CHUSYUEULYK CHTED.

dBTYK VSCHM RTYOHTSDEO PFUFHRYFSH YUETE DCHB NEUSGB, RPFETSCH 80,000 YUEMPCHEL, OE UYUYFBS VPMSHOSCHI. dPUFYZOHCh UCHPEZP MBZETS Dhobi ON, ECE R HRPFTEVMEOYA RPOFPOOSCHK NPUF ning OBYEM ZPDOSCHN, PITBOB LPFPTPZP OBIPDYMBUSH B THLBI ZTELPCH, UPUFPSCHYYI ON UMHTSVE X dBTYS ON. PJI, RBC

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Qadim zamonlardan buyon inson turar-joylari doimo suv yaqinida joylashgan. Odamlar faqatgina daryodan suv olib, transport vositasidan foydalanishga harakat qilishdi. Yuk tashish boshlanishi hunarmandchilik rivojlana boshlagan davrga tegishli bo'lib, dastlabki ishlab chiqarishlar paydo bo'ldi.

Odamlar hunarmandchilik, charm, mo'ynalar, yarim qimmatbaho toshlar, yog'och va gil buyumlarni ko'chirish uchun birinchi yog'och shlyuzlarni qurishga kirishdilar. Birinchi kemalar yog'ochdan yasalgan edi. 9-14-asrlarda eng mashhur kemalar rooks, strugs va shitiki edi.

Qo'rquv yoki umumiy dubalarda yelkan bilan jihozlangan yog'och qayiq edi. Dastlab, bunday idish butunlay katta eman yoki kichkina magistraldan tashqariga chiqarilgan edi, u keyinchalik yog'och taxta bilan qurilgan edi. Keyin rooks butunlay taxta qurishni boshladi.

Yog'och tosh

Qadimgi Rossiyada 25 metrga yaqin bunday qayiq katerlari uskuyay deyilgan.

Struga

Yassi pastga cho'zilgan yugurish kemasi, agar xohlasak, olib tashlanishi mumkin bo'lgan o'choq bilan jihozlangan. Uzunligi 20 metrdan 40 metrgacha, qayiq va kamon bir xil darajada bo'lishi mumkin edi. Chuqurlikda shiftga qaragan kichik idish bor edi.

Shitik

Shitik shkafi chakka chiziqlar yoki bantlar bilan biriktirib qo'yilgan kichik tekislikli kema deb nomlangan. Shitikning uzunligi 10 metr bo'lib, bunday kema birma-bir teridan tikilgan kichik suzib yurar edi.

XIV asrning ikkinchi yarmida savdo munosabatlari

Tashishning boshlanishi XIV asrda, mamlakatlar o'rtasidagi savdo-sotiqning rivojlanishi katta hajmdagi mahsulotlarni o'z ichiga olgan yirik kemalarni talab qilganda paydo bo'ldi. Ayni paytda tersaneler katta tekis pastga chizilgan uchta mast idishlarni qurishga kirishdilar, ular faqat suzish bilan emas, balki yog'och bilan jihozlangan.



  Uchta mastli ikki qavatli kemalar

Birozdan keyin uchta mastli ikki qavatli idish keng tarqaldi, uning uzunligi 100 metrgacha bo'lishi mumkin edi. Rossiya yuklarini rivojlantirish tarixida katta vaqt burlachestvo. Tovarlar bilan to'ldirilgan barjalar og'ir burlak ishi hisobiga daryo bo'ylab harakatlanardi.

Yuklarni tashkillashtirish

XVIII asr o'rtalarida bug'-motorni harakatga keltiradigan birinchi kemalar paydo bo'ldi. Rossiyada birinchi bug 'idishi 1915 yilning yozida, temir fabrikasi egasi Karl Byrd tomonidan qurilgan. Birinchi bug 'qotishmalari temir qayiq va yon tomonlarida katta g'ildirak g'ildiraklari bor edi. Shu bilan birga, Rossiya sanoati jadal sur'atlar bilan rivojlandi.

Yuk tashish va yo'lovchi tashish uchun maxsus transport kompaniyalari ochildi. Steamer mashinalari muntazam takomillashtirildi, qozonda yuqori bosimli bug 'motorlari ishlatildi.
20-asrning boshlarida birinchi kemalar paydo bo'ldi. Birinchi "Vandal" kemasi 1903 yilda Sormov zavodidagi Nobel qarindoshlari tomonidan qurilgan. Ular yo'lovchi tashish bilan shug'ullanadigan ancha tezkor qulay bo'lgan bug 'kemalari edi.

Zamonaviy kemalar dizel dvigatel bilan jihozlangan, bu esa pervanellarni boshqaradi. Bunday kemalarning korpusi temir, titan va alyuminiy plitalardan iborat. Kema shkafi kemaning navigatsiya uskunalari bilan jihozlangan bo'lib, ular kemadan chiqib ketishlariga imkon bermaydi.

XIX asrning eng buyuk nemis tarixchisi Leopold von Ranke, tarixni o'rganishga bag'ishlagan uzoq umrining yuksak donoligi aks etgan universal tarixga ega bo'lib, shunday dedi: "Ehtimol, insoniyatning yagona maqsadi navigatsiya qilish va qo'shni davlatlar o'rtasidagi urushlar rivojlanishga erishadi. "

"Seafaring va urush", uning fikriga ko'ra, insoniyat taraqqiyotiga hissa qo'shgan ikkita omil, ya'ni tarixning butun tarixiga ta'sir ko'rsatdi. "Qo'shni davlatlar o'rtasidagi urushlar" haqida gapirar ekan, ehtimol, "dengizda qo'shnilar" bo'lsa-da, hatto uzoq vaqtlarda ham o'zlarini katta urushlar bilan urushgan bo'lsa-da, asosan, "qo'shnilarga quruqlik" degan ma'noni anglatadi. Navigatsiya, suv va, ayniqsa, dengizning rivojlanishi bilan ajralib turadigan element bo'lib qolaverdi va tinch va harbiy jihatdan birlashtiruvchi modda bo'lib qoldi.

Agar Ranke "yagona, ehtimol, maqsad" degan bo'lsa, demak, bu ibora insoniyatning maqsadi boshqa emasligini afsuslanishini anglatmasligi kerak. Bu erda biz tasodifiy bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan tasodifiy hodisa haqida emas, balki inson rivojlanish qonuni, o'zgarmaydigan va izchil, tasodifiy ta'sirlarga begona bo'lgan qonun haqida gapirmaymiz. Navigatsiya va urush insoniyat taraqqiyoti uchun Xulq-atvorda belgilab berilgan bevosita yo'llar edi. Hozirgi vaqtda bu ikki yo'l dengiz flotiga birlashtirilgan.

Harbiy zaxiralar xalqlar taqdirini bir necha bor hal qildilar va shu bilan dunyo tarixining rivojlanishiga hal qiluvchi ta'sir ko'rsatdilar. Dengizdagi harbiy amaliyotlar nisbatan oz sonli bo'lishiga qaramasdan, dengiz urushlari erdagi urushlardan ko'ra muhimroq edi; tarixiy ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan birorta er jangi emas, balki Actium yoki Trafalgar jangi bilan taqqoslanishi mumkin. Ulardan birinchisi g'oliblarni butun qadimgi dunyo ustidan hukmronlik qilib, besh asrdan ortiq vaqt davomida, ikkinchisi esa butun dengizga, yoki butun bir dengizga hukmronlik qilgan.

Shunga qaramay, tarixchilar har doim e'tiborini quruqlikdagi urushlar va armiyaga bag'ishlashgan; ikkinchisi nafaqat qiziqish bilan, balki ularni dengizchilik va dengiz urushlariga qaraganda yaxshiroq tushungan.

Dengiz urushlari sodir bo'lgan beqaror dengiz ko'pchilik uchun noma'lum va jozibador ko'rinmaydi; Dengizchilik xizmati ilmiy va adabiy faoliyatga muhtoj emas, shuning uchun kemachi kamdan-kam hollarda qalamga tushadi, hatto u ularni mukammal egallasa ham. Dengiz qo'mondonlaridan hech biri bizni Qaysarga o'xshagan safarlari, yoki yaqinda Buyuk Fridrix Buyuklarning safarlari haqidagi ta'riflarini qoldirmadi. Shunday ekan, bizga etib kelgan dengiz savaşları haqida ma'lumot afsuski, to'liq emas, kam va ko'pincha ziddir; shuning uchun ko'p hollarda, barcha sa'y-harakatlarga qaramay, nima yuz berayotgani haqidagi to'g'ri fikrni shakllantirish mumkin emas.

Aytish joizki, dengiz safarlari safar boshlanganda boshlanishi mumkin edi va shuning uchun yuk tashish tarixiga va rivojlanishiga katta hissa qo'shgan xalqlarga qarash mutlaqo to'g'ri bo'ladi.

Tashishning boshlanishi bizda ma'lumotimiz bo'lmagan paytlarga to'g'ri keladi. Suvda harakatlanishning birinchi vositasi, ehtimol, qamishning burchaklaridan yoki daraxt tanasi bo'ylab bog'langan, oqim bo'ylab harakatlanadigan yoki qutblar bilan harakatlanadigan somon; u dukkakli roli va eng ibtidoiy turi kichik bir chodir rolini o'ynagan qo'pol novda bilan ta'minlangan. Ushbu turdagi rastalar hali Vistula va Oderda topilgan. Keyinchalik janubiy dengizlarda va bir necha o'n yillar ilgari Kiel va Ellerbek o'rtasida "tekis daraxtlar" (Einbaum) shaklida ishlatiladigan, yaltiroq yoki ibtidoiy suzib yordamida harakatlanish uchun ishlatiladigan, kovlashtirilgan bir kanoe. Ular allaqachon ishlab chiqarilishi ma'lum vositalarni qo'llashni talab qiladigan kemalar edi, bu esa bir oz taraqqiyotni ko'rsatmoqda. Yana bir o'sish - bu alohida taxtalardan yasalgan qayiqlar, yalang'och va yelkan bilan jihozlangan; Bunday idishlar faqatgina turli xil hunarmandchilikning rivojlanishi va metallni boshqarish qobiliyatiga ega bo'lishi mumkin.

Navigatsiya bo'yicha dastlabki urinishlar, ehtimol, baliq ovlashdan, keyinchalik tovar almashinuvidan, ya'ni dengiz savdosidan kelib chiqqan; Shuningdek, bizning asrda kuch ishlatadigan hech kimga tegishli bo'lmagan dengiz kengligida ko'pincha qonun, qaroqchilik dastlabki davrlarda rivojlangan. Ilgari xalqaro huquq tushunchasiga ega bo'lmagan qadimgi qarashlarga ko'ra har bir ajnabiy jazosiz o'ldirilishi mumkin bo'lgan dushman hisoblangan; dengizni talon-taroj qilish hech qanday jinoyat, norozilik hisoblanmadi va juda ochiq amalga oshirildi. Barcha dengizchilik davlatlari dengizni talon-taroj qildilar, odamlarni ovlab, qul savdosiga kirishdilar. Odatda misollar Helenaning o'g'irlanishi va Evmei qulligidan sotishdir (Odyssey, XV, 402-483).

Joylashuv va navigatsiya uchun yaroqliligi nuqtai nazaridan, ayrim mamlakatlar bir-biridan keskin farq qildilar. Ba'zilari uzoq safar uchun tabiiy qobiliyatga egadirlar, boshqalari, aksincha, hatto dengizning dahshatiga kelgan bu narsalarga ham ozgina ov va ozgina ovqat bermaydilar. Birinchisi, Fenikeliler, ko'pchilik yunon qabilalari va Etruskanlar, ikkinchisi - Misrliklar, Hindular, Forslar va Rimliklarga tegishli bo'lishi kerak.

Hatto juda uzoq vaqtlarda Fenikeliler boshqa dengiz millatiga mansub bo'lib, o'zlarining dengizda taraqqiyoti bilan ajralib turishgan, biroq ular deyarli hech qanday matn yoki yozma dalilni yo'qotishgan.

Eng qadimgi ma'lumot qadimgi yozuvchilar qoldirgan yozma guvohlik shaklida emas, balki faqatgina XIX asr o'rtalarida ishlab chiqarilganlar tufayli bizga misrliklar orqali yetib bordi. yodgorliklarni qazib olish va ierogliflarni o'qish bilan bog'liq.

Dengiz tuz, suv, dengiz baliq va dengiz tuz eb harom xurofiy Misr fikr uchun, biz yomon ruhga (Typhon) va dahshatli saltanatini taqdim, shuning uchun erkin Fir'avnning kirishi oldin Psammetichus (664-611 gg. Av. E.) Misr dengiz savdosi nafaqat passiv edi. Boshqa tomondan, Neil va uning shlanglari, Misr, mamlakat madaniyat eng qadimgi, u juda erta va katta ko'lamli ishlab daryo harakatlanish haqida ekanligiga hissa qo'shgan tabiiy xabarlar, bir oz emas xizmat qilgan. Qadim zamonlardan boshlab, cho'kindi daryo kanallarida o'rmon etishmovchiligi tufayli papirus to'plamidan tashkil topgan baland ekstremitativ yorug' shular ishlatilgan. Ular qut-barakalar bilan harakatlantirilib, odamlarni va hayvonlarni, hatto buqalarni olib o'tishga va bozorlarga mahsulot yetkazishga xizmat qilishardi. Ushbu somon tasvirlarining biri 6-sulolaning hukmronligiga (mil. Av. 3-ming yillikning o'rtalari) tegishli.

Shu bilan birga, misrliklarning qo'rquvini dengizdan oldirish va ularning kema qurish va navigatsiya sohasida erishgan yutuqlarini inkor etish mumkin emas. Birinchi yog'och kemalar Misrda miloddan avvalgi IV-III ming yillar oralig'ida paydo bo'lgan. er Misrliklar allaqachon texnika jihatidan mukammal bo'lgan kemalar, masalan, tekislikda joylashgan kemalar, uzunligi 10-16 metr, yelkanlar ostida yelkanlar, masalan, odamlarni tashish uchun suzib yurishgan. Etarli darajada kuchsiz sarson bo'lmaganda, ustun o'rniga gorizontal qisqa bo'yinturuqli ikki burchakli echki, tor suzib qo'yilgan. Yelkanga qo'shimcha ravishda, har ikki tomonning 8 dan 26 gacha bo'lgan sonini ajratish uchun lansolat tishlari ham ishlatilgan; kemaning har bir tomonida 2 dan 5 gacha bo'lgan qayiq idishni boshqarish uchun ishlatilgan. Uzoq o'tish uchun mo'ljallangan kemalarda kemadan yasalgan idishlar bor edi. Jamoa soni 70 kishiga etdi. Bu tomirlarning eng yirik Mtesa Viktoriya ko'li ustida, Stanley 1878 yilda chop etilgan "Qora qit'a orqali" kitobida, tasvirlangan Uganda hukmdor sudlari o'xshash, deb ortiq 4.600 yil o'tib bo'lgan.

Bundan tashqari, Misrliklar katta yuklarni tashish uchun ishlatilgan 200 tonnagacha yuk ko'tarish quvvatiga ega katta pontonlarga egadirlar. Masalan, yirik Misr binosi uchun foydalaniladigan toshlar.

Dizayni bilan Misr kemalari ilgari Nilga o'xshash kemalar yoki turli xil usullar bilan kemalar yasashgan. Misrda olib borilishi mumkin bo'lgan yagona daraxt, akasiyadan iborat bo'lib, unda uzoq paxta sotib olinmaydigan qattiq va tolali daraxt bor edi. Kichkina yog'och qismlar kesiklar va oluklar bilan birlashtirildi (Herodot Misr kemalarini qoplamani g'ishtlarga solishtirish bilan taqqosladi), kuch-quvvat uchun korpus kabellar bilan qoplangan. Plitalar qurol-to'polon bilan to'ldirilgan, qurol-yaroqli chiroqlar biriktirildi. Bu chuqurlikdan va chiziqdan boshlab, ular to'g'ridan-to'g'ri quyoshdan pastga qarab o'tgandilar, bu ular uchun qo'shimcha kuch bergan. Qovurg'alar yo'q. Yuqori burun va qaltiroq orasidagi keskin simi ularni bu holatda saqlashga yordam berdi. Keel bu kabi yo'q edi - uning uzunlamasına keel plankasi bilan almashtirildi va burunga yaqinroq bo'lgan er-xotin dovon qirg'oq bo'ylab to'xtadi, pastki qismi esa buning uchun ishonchli yordam bera olmadi. Eng qadimgi Misr yog'och kemalari yaqinda Abidosda, birinchi sulolaning boshlanishi - Osning (Menes) yoki Jera shohlari davri, mil. Avv. 3000 yillarda topilgan. er Giza IV sulolasining kemalaridan farqli o'laroq, ular yig'ilib dafn etilgan. Keyinchalik ular 20-30 metrga yaqinlashdi, kutilganidek, qoplama taxtalari kabellar bilan bog'langan, ularning orasidagi bo'shliqlar papirus tolalari bilan qoplangan.

Uchinchi ming yillikning boshidan boshlab Misr Suriya va Kichik Osiyodan (mashhur Livan sadrlaridan) zo'r yog'och import qila boshladi, lekin Misr kemalarining asosiy dizayn elementlari asta-sekin o'zgarib bordi. Ayni paytda 50 m gacha bo'lgan dengiz bo'yidagi kemalar qurilgan bo'lib, 40 va undan ko'p yigitlarga mo'ljallangan. Biz ularni 1954 yilda Giza shahridagi 43 metrlik King Cheops kemasini kashf qilishimiz mumkin. Bu 1954 yilda ishlab chiqarilgan maxsus er osti xonasiga joylashtirilgan. Buning uchun material Livan sadrini, shoxi, shikamor va akasiyadir. Dastlab, misrliklar qisqagina kosovka kabi foydalanar, qarsillagan holda yugurardi. Eng oddiy qulflar - plankordagi teshiklardan o'tgan ip o'ralgan miloddan avvalgi 2400-yillarda paydo bo'lgan. er Kichkina chamadon suvni suvga botirmoqchi bo'ldi; qon tomirini urib, o'zini stolga tushirdi. Shu bilan birga, qo'zg'olonni boshqaruvchi qassobga ham o'rnatildi, bu kemaning nazoratini osonlashtirdi.

Ikki dona mast va oddiy bir tomonlama ustun 6-sulola (mil. Avv. 2200 yillar) oxirigacha birgalikda omon qolgandi, shundan so'ng er-xotin mast ishlatildi. Saqqara shahridagi Ahibining qabridan tushadigan jarohatlar, jamoa bunday er-xotin dovonni qanday tushishini ko'rsatadi.

Uchinchi ming yillikning oxiriga qadar, baland bo'yli va tor suzib yurar (Nilda, baland banklari bilan, bu quyruq shamolini yanada samarali ushlab turishga imkon berdi). Yelkanlar ishlatilmaganda, ustunlar cho'llardan olib tashlangan va pastki qismida yotardi.

Mast ko'p sonli odamlarni ushlab turdi. Taxminan mil. Avv. 2400 yilda paydo bo'lgan. er Boshida kamonga yaqinroq joylashgan usta asta-sekin qaynab ketgan. Taxminan 1500 yil. er u shunchaki to'g'ridan-to'g'ri shamolda emas, balki kemaning o'rtasiga joylashtirilgan edi. Yelkanlar gulchambarga ra'yga bog'landi, pastki qismi - stolga (qadim zamonlarda faqat misrliklar dastgoh taxtasidan foydalangan). Sho'ng'in taxtasi papirusdan suzib yurish uchun etarlicha kuchga ega bo'lmaganligi sababli, o'zining doimiy qurollari bor edi. Ungar harakatsiz bo'lib turdi, yelkan ko'tarildi va samolyot bilan birga yiqildi. Misrliklar blokdan foydalanmaganlar, shuning uchun ko'plab qo'llar suzishni nazorat qilishlari kerak edi. 2000 yil atrofida, pastki va juda keng bo'lgan yuqori suzib o'rniga qarama-qarshi shaklga suzib keldi.

Dengiz kemalari daryo kemalari bilan bir xil tartibda qurilgan bo'lib, yagona farqi shundan iboratki, qalin kabel kamonning orqa tomoniga cho'zilgan juda kamtar tovushni mustahkamlash uchun ishlatilgan bo'lib, u chuqurlikda dumalagan devor bilan qoplangan. Jamoa vagining yordami bilan burishdi. Yupqa ip, kemaning pastki chuqurlikdagi bosim ostida ajralib chiqishiga to'sqinlik qilib, kemaning plyaj darajasida bog'langan. Eng qadimgi dengiz kemalari Abusiradan tushirilgan, 2450 yilda qurilgan, harbiy ekspeditsiyani qaytadan tasvirlab bergan.

Misrlik matnlar harbiy maqsadlarda foydalanilgani haqida ma'lumot beradi. Abidos shahridan bo'lgan Una nobelasining yozuvida, XX asrning oxiri. BC Misol uchun, Misr chegara o'tgan janubiy Falastinda hodisa amaliyoti, ayniqsa, Badaviylarga qarshi sharqda kampaniya ta'rifi mavjud. Filippin va quruqlik qo'shinlarining birgalikdagi harakatlarining eng qadimiy ta'rifi shubhasiz: "Buyuk Qaddofiy meni besh marta qo'mondonlik qilishga yubordi va ular har doim isyon ko'targanida qum aholisi mamlakatini tinchlantirish uchun yubordi - bu majlisning yordami bilan, men Qodirligimning maqtoviga sazovor bo'lganman. bu isyonchilar "Gazelle Nos" da bu musofirlar orasida edi.Men ushbu guruhlar bilan kemalarni kesib o'tdim va qumli mamlakatning shimolidagi tog'ning yuqori qismiga yopishib oldim va qo'shinlarning yarmi quruqlik yo'lida edi, men kelib, ularning hammasini qo'lga oldim. Untari. " (Yuqori Misrdagi Abidosning Ieroglif tilagi, II Xodoning oltinchi sulolasi podshohi Una, I Piopi I, Merenra I - XXV asrning o'rtalari - XX asr boshlari BC., Qohira muzeyi. .

Qadimgi misrliklar birinchi uzoq safarlari haqida ma'lumot ham bor. Hammamat vodiysida olib borilgan qazishmalarda topilgan ieroglif yozuvlardan biz misrlik kemalar miloddan avvalgi 2300 yillarda bo'lgan degan xulosaga kelishimiz mumkin. er Yuqori Nildagi Koptosdan Qizil dengizgacha bo'lgan yo'l tugagan Levkos Limen (hozirgi Cozeir) portidan boshlab, Puntning ajoyib mamlakatiga suzib ketdi. Qadim zamonlarda dengiz haqidagi aniq ma'lumot bizga miloddan avvalgi 1470-yillarda Queen Hatshepsut (1479-1458) tomonidan Qizil dengiz orqali Puntga jo'natilgan ekspeditsiyaga bag'ishlangan Deir al-Bahrining Theban ibodatxonasida yozuvlar va tasvirlarni bizga beradi. er

Yuqorida ta'riflangan katta Nil kemalariga o'xshash, o'sha paytdan 1000 yil oldin mavjud bo'lgan ushbu kemalar muhim muvaffaqiyatlarga ishora qilmoqda. Ularda tasvirlangan Xatshepsut kemalarining qoldiqlari Eski Shohlik kemalariga qaraganda chiroyliroqdir, ularning tasavvurlaridadir, ular devor bilan qattiq va old pardaga ega; tekis, ildiz tekis kavisli va lotus tomir bilan tugatilgan. Pastki nurlarning uchlari korpusdan o'tib, strukturani kuchaytirdi. Kema tomirlarini bog'lab turishning hojati yo'q. Yelkan, vaqtning daryo kemalarida bo'lgani kabi, keng va past. U ikkita bir-biriga bog'langan daraxtlarning uzun chizig'iga bog'langan. Dastavval avvalgi kemalarga nisbatan pastroq, postlar soni kamaydi. Yelkan yelkanlari uchun hech qanday asboblar ko'rinmaydi, kuchli shamolda katta suzib tushib, uning o'rniga kichikroq bo'lishi mumkin. Har bir kemada 30 yigit bor edi - bu kemalarning uzunligi kamida 30 metrga teng deb hisoblanishi mumkin. Miloddan avvalgi 1400 yildan keyin. er Misrda kema qurishda katta o'zgarishlar ro'y berdi. Keyinchalik O'rta er dengizi urf-odatlarining ichida Krit birinchi bo'lib, keyin finesiklar va yunonlarni yaratdi.

Queen Hatshepsut bilan jihozlangan ushbu dengiz ekspeditsiyasi bizni ishonchli va batafsil ma'lumotga ega bo'lgan birinchi sayohatdir. Shunday qilib, Queen Hatshepsut, barcha adolatli, dengiz mavqega birinchi o'rin tutadi. Punt mamlakatidan olib kelingan yuklar oltin, kumush, fil suyagi, qora va boshqa qimmatbaho o'rmonlardan iborat bo'lib, kubiklardagi xushbo'y o'simliklar, xushbo'y choy qatlami, leopard terilari, ayollar, bolalar va ikkita turdagi chaqaloqlarni o'z ichiga oladi. Biroq hozirgi kunga qadar misrliklar bu ichki daryo filosiga ega bo'lishlariga qaramasdan, ruhoniylarning diniy taklifi ostida dengizga nisbatan g'azab va qo'rquvga ega bo'lgan yoki Misr bilan tez-tez aloqada bo'lgan Fenikeliyaliklar bu kampaniyani amalga oshirganmi yoki yo'qmi, tushunarsiz bo'lishi kerak. . Fenikelilerin aytishicha, Thebes'dagi taxminan bir davrga (XVIII sulola) tegishli bo'lgan yangi qabrga qo'yilgan freskalar orasida xuddi shunday kemalar tasvirlari bor, lekin fenixlar jamoasi bilan. Ehtimol, ular 600 yil davomida Sulaymon kemalarida Ophir yurtiga yurish qilgan va o'sha erda o'lja bilan qaytib kelgan Tyres shohi Xiromning Feniks-laikachilariga o'xshab, ular bilan birga bo'lgan merosxo'rlar bo'lishi mumkin edi. Miloddan avvalgi 600-yillarda mil. podshoh Necho Afrikani aylanib o'tish uchun flotillani yubordi, butun jamoa misrliklar emas, balki o'sha fenikristlardan tashkil topgan edi (Hirodot, IV, 42), bu ko'rinishda bu safar dengiz ta'siridan qo'rqishdan qo'rqish mumkin Yunonlarning ta'siri, Shoh Psammetichus ostida Misrga kirib kelgan.

Dengizga borib, misrliklar fenikaliklarga savdo qildilar. Nilda shohlar uzoq vaqt harbiy kemalarni qo'riqlab turishgan va Misr harbiy dengiz flotining juda uzoq vaqtlarda ma'lum bir tashkiloti bo'lgan. Taxminan 1600 yil. er ushbu flot faol ravishda Hyksos (Hürriy va Semitic qabilalari birligi) dan chiqib, mamlakatni qul qilib, Nil Deltasiga joylashdi. Ushbu voqealar King Kamos (miloddan avvalgi X asrning boshlarida) stelida yozilgan yozuvda aks ettirilgan. Ushbu manbadan olingan ma'lumotlarga qaraganda, samolyot qo'nishi va qo'nishi uchun ekspeditsiya uchun ishlatilgan. Yozuvda bir nechta kemalarning ismlari yozilgan. 18-asrlarda (mil. Avv. 16 asr o'rtalaridan boshlab) birinchi uchta shohda yashagan Axmozaning oarsmen boshlig'ining qabri qabrida yozilgan yozuv ham saqlanib qolgan. Ahmos Hyksos va Kushitsga qarshi ko'plab kampaniyalarda ishtirok etgan, Misr janubidagi qo'zg'olonlarni bostirdi. U xizmat qilgan bir necha kemalarning ismlarini keltiradi. Yozuvdan keyin u Nilda bir necha marta dushman filolariga qarshi kurashgan (uning qo'liga tushgan dushman yuguruvchilar haqida eslatib o'tilgan). Yohmus, ayniqsa, er ustida jang qilgan holatlarni nazarda tutgan - uning asosiy xizmati Nil floti bilan bog'liq edi.

Ramses III, mil. Masalan, Habo shahridagi Ma'baddan Misr floti va «dengiz xalqlari» (Filistlar Filistlari) kemalari o'rtasidagi urush tasvirlangan. Urush erga yaqin joyda sodir bo'lgan (Misr jangchisining o'ng pastki burchagida tugaydi yoki erni qaqragan kemadan tanlagan dushmanni ushlab turibdi), ammo Nil qo`llarida yoki Kan'on qirg'oqlaridan birida qaerga gapirish mumkin emas. Bu vaqtning Misr kemalari Hatshepsut kabartmalarında vakili qilingan kishilardan sezilarli darajada farq qiladi. Ular urush kemalari. Burun sherning boshi bilan bezatilgan, qordayoq tekis emas, egri emas. Roverlar baland o'qqa tutilgan dushman o'qlaridan saqlanmoqda. Ushbu kemalar, albatta, pastki qismi yo'q edi. Kamon va kamon o'rtasida cho'zilgan simi mavjud emas - bortning kuchi miloddan avvalgi 1400-yillarning fresklaridan Suriya kemalariga o'xshaydi. e., ichki strukturasi orqali erishiladi. Spar ham o'zgardi - idish-tovoqlar g'oyib bo'ldi, bo'yinturuq ustunlari va topenantlar soni kamaydi. Ray endi to'g'ridan-to'g'ri emas, balki bir oz kavisli. Ustun ko'rish platformasi bilan yakunlandi. Gitarlar - ular antik davrda mavjud bo'lgan shaklda paydo bo'ldi. Bu sizni tezda samolyotga suzib olish imkonini beruvchi muhim kashfiyotdir, u ancha oldinroq tayyorlangan bo'lishi mumkin, ammo bu erda birinchi marta taqdim etiladi. Shunisi e'tiborga loyiqki, Misr sudlarining boshlig'i va qurollari dushmanlardan deyarli farq qilmaydi. "Dengiz xalqlari" kemalari Ege tipidagi, burun burun va burunli, burun bir o'rdak boshi bilan bezatilgan.

Ehtimol, misrliklarning to'satdan hujum qilgani dushmanlar portiga tushib qolganini ko'rsatmoqda. Dushman kemalarining yelkanlari olib tashlanadi, yalang'och paxlonlar ko'rinmaydi. Misrliklar deyarli faqat kamonchilar. Dashtdagi qal'alar, dubulg'alari, shoxlari bilan kiygan yoki qilich va nayzalar bilan urishgan, ammo qurolni ishlatmaydigan dengiz jangchilari. Ikki Misr kemasi dushmanga yaqinroq. Burun ustida turgan misrlik bir jangchi dushmanning kemasida nayza bilan urib tushiradi. Boshqa bir kemaning burunidagi misrlik bir mushukdan foydalanishga tayyorlanmoqda.

Bu dengiz urushi quruqlikdagi jangdan ancha farq qilmadi. Dengizcha taktikalar, agar bunday kontseptsiya mavjud bo'lsa, faqat to'satdan hujumga yoki dushmanning tartibini tarqatishga va o'z kemalarini birma-bir halok qilishga urinishi mumkin. Vaqtning yagona dengiz qurollari yugurish kancasi edi. Qo'zg'a hali kashf qilinmadi va dengiz urushlari samolyotlarga tushdi.

Jami jami to'qqizta kemalar (4 Misr va 5 dushman) bor, shuning uchun bu jangda haqiqiy muvozanat haqida gapirish qiyin, shuningdek, Misr harbiy flotining hajmi haqida gapirish qiyin. XV-XIV asrlardagi hujjatlardan. BC Masalan, Ugaritda (Ras Shamra saytida Suriyada) ma'lum bo'lganidek, bu nisbatan kichik, ammo boy shaharcha 150 harbiy kemani joylashtirishi mumkin (ularning hajmi haqida ma'lumot yo'q va jamoalarning soni haqida ma'lumot yo'q) ). Misr, nisbatan qisqarish davrida ham, ehtimol yanada ko'proq narsalarga ega bo'lishi mumkin edi.

Miloddan avvalgi II ming yillik o'rtalarida Egey dunyosida hukmronlik qilgan dengiz kemasining turi. Taxminan 1400 yilda Levant va Misrning kema quruvchilari qarzga olingan. Tebesdagi Kenamun maqbarasidan fresklar Misrga kelgan kemalar kemalari bo'lib, ular Suriya kemalari bilan tuzilgan kemachilarga qaram bo'lishgan. Ular Hatshepsut kemalarini eslatib turadigan ko'plab usullar mavjud (yoy va sternlar suvdan yuqorisidan chiqib ketgan, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri qal'alar va chandiqlar shamchiroqlardan o'tib ketgan). Qo'rqinchli va cho'zinchoq uzunlamas kabelning saqlanib qolishi yo'q - tananing kuchi, aniqki, ichki strukturasi (ramkalar, chiziqlar) orqali erishiladi. Rasmga ko'ra, bu kemalarning o'lchamlarini aniqlash mumkin emas, biroq Ras Shamre (Ugarit) da bo'lgan hujjatlar bir vaqtning o'zida juda katta idishlar qurilganligini ko'rsatib turibdi - bu kabi kemaga 450 tonnagacha g'alla yuklanishi mumkin edi.

Misrning Seti I (1290-1279) va Ramses II (1279-1212) va Necho (miloddan avvalgi 609-594) kabi energetik hukmdorlar kerak bo'lgan o'rmonni, Qizil va O'rta dengiz. Oxirgi podshohning vorislaridan biri, ya'ni Apria (miloddan avvalgi 588-569 yy.) Tirning aholisi bilan dengiz urushlari o'tkazgan, dengizda hukmronlik qilgan va Kiprda shaharni egallagan. Misr floti harbiy filonlarning tarixida alohida ahamiyatga ega emas edi, chunki u savdogar filosini yoki dengiz savdosini himoya qilmadi.

Qadim zamonlardan beri Misrliklar kanallarni, to'g'onlarni, hatto tashish kanallarida shlyuzlarni qurishga muvaffaq bo'lishgan. "XX asrda XX asrda yashagan Tsarni Merikarga o'rgatish" da Delta shahrida bir necha yirik gidrotexnik inshootlar (kanallar yoki to'g'onlar) haqida gap ketmoqda, bu osiyoliklar uchun to'siq bo'lib xizmat qildi ("Ko'rsatmalar" ehtimol O'rta Qirollik davrida tuzilgan).

Aristotel (Meteorologiya 1.15) Sharqiy (Suvaysh Isthmus) orqali kanal qurish uchun dastlab Seztiris edi. Pliny the Elder (6.33.165) shuningdek, Sezostirisni dengiz o'rtasidagi birinchi quruvchi, Strabo (XVII.1, 25, va II. 31) esa, bu kanalning "Troyan urushidan oldin" qurilgani haqida xabar beradi. Shunday qilib, qadimgi mualliflar Kanalni XII asrlarda yashagan davrga, Senusserts (Flinders Pithrey) ning biriga hukmronlik qilishni boshlashgan, biroq "Sezostiris" haqidagi qadimgi ma'lumot Ramses IIga, ya'ni XVIII sulola davrida, ).

Deyir al-Bahridagi mashhur Hatshepsut boli, shuningdek, kanal masalasi bilan ham bog'liq. Savol quyidagicha tushiriladi: Puntni Qizil dengiz bo'ylab jo'natib, Sharqiy Cho'l orqali ularni quruqlikka olib borish va faqat dengiz orqali kemalarga yuklab olish kerakmi? Natijada, kemalar ustida Qizil dengizda suzib yurgan tasvirlangan kemalar, Thebes yaqinidagi Nilda turishgan. Shu munosabat bilan ikki qarama qarshi fikr bildirildi. Ulardan biri (Brested, Erman) aytadiki, Delta-ning sharqiy qismini hali ham Hatshepsut ostida Qizil dengiz bilan bog'laydigan bir qator suv yo'li bor edi. Boshqalar (Posner, Gardner) Necho davrigacha (miloddan avvalgi 600-yilgacha) hech qanday kanal yo'qligini va Tebesdagi iskala ustidagi kemalarning muvaffaqiyatli yakunlangan ekspeditsiyaning ramziy tasviri bo'lgan rassomning tasavvuridir. Deyir al-Bahriydagi rölyeflar va yozuvlar Qizil dengizga quruqlik orqali yuklarni tashish bo'yicha aniq yo'riqnomalarga ega emasligi ular ekspeditsiyaning marshrutida tasvirchining beparvoligi, bo'shliqlari va qisqartirishlariga taalluqlidir. Biroq, bu yozuv bir necha marotaba "ekspeditsiyaning suv va quruqlik yo'li bilan" rivojlanganligini bildiradi, lekin marshrutning oxirgi qismi ham erdan o'tishi mumkin. Ma'lumki, Puntning oldingi ekspeditsiyalari ushbu yarim afsonaviy mamlakatga quruq vositalar orqali erishgan. Puntdagi kampaniya miloddan avvalgi III ming yillikning boshlarida sodir bo'lgan. e. va mil. er Misrliklar allaqachon oltin olib ketishgan edi. Biroq, qaysi mamlakat yoki davlatlar, qadimgi qirollik Misrliklar Punt deb nomlangan - "Xudoning erlari" - aniq ma'lum emas. Turli paytlarda ular Arabiston yoki Sharqiy Afrikaning biron bir joyiga qo'ng'iroq qilishlari mumkin edi. Ammo Punt qaerdaligini Queen Hatshepsut qaerda bo'lsa, Deyl al-Bahri yozuvi Nilda kemalar ko'rinishini tushuntirib bermaydi.

Qadimgi Misrda Yangi Shohlik davrida navigatsiya kanallari mavjudligi arxeologiya tomonidan tasdiqlangan. Zamonaviy shirin suv kanalini qazishda Ramses II qo'riqxonasi bo'ylab qurilgan kanal izlari topildi. Piy-Ramess, Bubastis va Pifom shaharlaridan o'tadi, u erda granit stellari qirolga va uning jilovli dizayni maqtagan yozuvlar bilan tikilgan. Hech narsa, bu kanal ikki dengizni bog'langanligini ko'rsatadi.

Delta shahrining shimoli-sharqiy qismida (Qantar sharqida) Isroil geologlari boshqa transport kanalining izlarini topdilar. Ular, bu kanal hali ham Vodiy Tumilat orqali Nadi orqali o'tib ketgan, ammo bu hali tasdiqlanmagan edi. Yangi qirollik davrining ko'plab turar-joylari Sharqiy Kanalning Suvaysh va G'azo orollari orasida joylashgan qismida topilgan bo'lib, u qurilishni shu vaqtgacha kechiktirishga imkon beradi.

Ayrim tadqiqotchilar, Karnakdagi Seti I (1290-1279) toifasining xuddi shu kanali bilan bog'lab turishadi. Bu erda qirol shohona jinoyatchi suv havzasiga tashlangan mustahkam ko'prikni kesib o'tadi. Bu yozuvda "ajratuvchi suvlar" (denat) deb nomlanadi. Ehtimol, bu "Sharqona kanal" yoki "Tog' yo'llari", boshqa matnlarda ham aytilgan.

Kanalga bog'liq bo'lgan savolga ko'ra, Ramses III (1185-1153) ning vasiyatnomasida "Harris Papyrus" deb ataladigan "Puntning yana bir ekspeditsiyasi" eslatib o'tilishi kerak: "kemalar Misrliklarning soni bilan bir qatorda yuklangan va ular o'zlari [kemalar] o'n minglab buyuk dengizga - Mu-Kedga, Punt mamlakatlariga yetib boradi, kemalar va qayiqlar o'z mamlakatining turli xil ajoyib va ​​sirli narsalari, Punta ko'plab Myrrlari, o'n minglab kishilar bilan bir qator yuk ko'tarib yuradigan narsalar bilan to'ldiriladi. , Koptos cho'li. Ular muvaffaqiyatli birga ularga najot mulkni bilan. Ular eshak va Coptos bo'yida daryosi ustida tomirlari, odamlar va tovarlar bo'yicha er tomonidan tashish uchun unga ortilgan va uning oldida daryo yuqoriga yuboriladi ivayut. "

Kontekstdan, kemalar qaerga yetib borayotganini bilish qiyin - "Koptos cho'li" boshlangan Qizil dengiz sohiliga yoki Koptos yaqinidagi Nil qirg'og'iga? Bir tomondan mollarni odamlarga va eshaklarga o'tkazish, so'ngra yana kemalarga, Nil va Qizil dengiz o'rtasida hech qanday kanal yo'qligi sababli, shuning uchun ular haddan tashqari yuk va quruqlik bilan olib ketilishi kerak edi. Boshqa tomondan, "keyin" va "qayta" so'zlari matnda mavjud emas va siz ushbu pasni tushunishingiz mumkin, shuning uchun Coptos tovarlari taqsimlangan va Misr atrofida jo'natilgan (boshqa kemalar, odamlar va eshaklar kerak bo'lgan) Keyin ular shohga topshirildilar. "Papirus Xarris" Yangi Shohlikning oxirida dengiz o'rtasida kanal mavjudligi yoki yo'qligi haqidagi savolga yakuniy javob bermaydi.

Yuk tashish kanali haqida batafsil ma'lumot Sais sulolasining vaqtiga to'g'ri keladi. Herodot (II. 158) Necho (609-594) Nildan Qizil dengizgacha kanal qurishni boshlaganligini yozadi, ammo uni tugatmadi va qurilish Fors shohi Doro I (521-486) ​​tomonidan bajarildi. Uning uzunligi to'rt kunlik safarga teng edi va ikkita uch tomonlama yonma-yon o'tishi mumkin edi. Nildan suv oqib tushganda, u Bubastisdan biroz balandroq boshladi. U Vodiy Tumilotdan o'tib, janubga zamonaviy Suvaysh kanali bo'ylab aylandi. Ushbu kanalni Diodor Sitsilian (I. 33. 8-14) va Strabo (XVII.

Kanalni tugatish sharafiga o'rnatilgan Darius Ining to'rtta tayog'i (Tel-El mashqutida, Wadi Tumilat Suvaysh Istmusga, Kabret va Shimoliy Sulaymon shimoliga etib boradigan joyda). Albatta, Darius Necho kanalini tozalab, uning qurilishini o'zida qoldirgan bo'lishi mumkin.

Nihoyat, yunon davrida Ptolemey II (285-247) ikki dengizni birlashtirgan kanalni qazib oldi. Diodor (I. 33. 11-12) va Strabo (XVII. 1. 25) tomonidan qayd etilgan va Pythomdan (Ptolomey hukmronligining 16-yilligi) stolidagi yozuvda keltirilgan. Bu Fakilikz hududida joylashgan sobiq kanaldan ko'ra, Nildan biroz yuqoriroqroq boshlandi. Biroq, Ptolemey ostidagi eski kanali tozalangan, chuqurlashgan va Vodiy Tumilot erlarini toza suv bilan ta'minlagan. O'sha paytdan boshlab, kanal ikkala dengizni birlashtiradigan transport marshrutiga aylandi. Imperator Trayan (98-117) va Xalif Omar (634-641) kanalni chuqurlashtirdi va navigatsiyani oshirdi; ammo 767 yilda uni Halifa Abu Ja'far bilan ataylab bombardimon qilishdi. Achchiq ko'llar quyoshning momaqaldiroq nurlari ostida tez quritilib, joriy kanalga kirguncha quruq qoldi.

Krit

O'rta Yer dengizida navigatsiyani rivojlantirish haqida so'z yuritar ekan, tarixdagi ilk muntazam logoyibuvchini yaratgan Krit kemalari haqida gapirish mumkin emas. Kritning qadimiy tsivilizatsiyasi asoslari mil. Avv. IV ming yillikda o'rnatildi. Ehtimol, Kichik Osiyodan kelgan, qadimgi aholisining avlodlari. Miloddan avvalgi 3000 yillardagi orolda joylashgan Nil Deltasining aholisi bu tsivilizatsiyaga qo'shimcha turtki bergan. er Kritning aholisi tarixda birinchi dengiz davlatini yaratgan. Miloddan avvalgi 2-ming yillikning o'rtalaridan uchinchi asr oxirigacha. er O'rta er dengizi hukmronligi ostida hukmronlik qildilar. Buning xotirasi yunon an'analarida, Minosning afsonalarida va uning talassokrasiyasida (dengiz hukmronligi, dengiz hukmronligi) saqlanib qolgan. Kritning kuch-qudrati va farovonligi dengiz savdosi bilan shug'ullanadi.

Minaan tsivilizatsiyasi (uning kashf etuvchisi, Artur Evans nomi bilan ataladigan), ko'plab erta tsivilizatsiyalarga xos bo'lgan tajovuzkorlikdan mahrum bo'lgan. Urushlar sahnalari kamdan-kam hollarda Krit orkestrida, uning shaharlarida mudofaa devorlari yo'q edi - dengiz va kuchli temir yo'l xorijiy bosqindan himoya qildi.

Hatto, g'aroyib tafsilotlarni talqin qilish va sharhlash juda qiyin bo'lgan Kritik kemalarning tasvirlari deyarli faqat muhrlarga saqlanib qolganligi ajablanarli ko'rinadi. Bu tasvirlarga qaraganda mil. Avv. 1600 yilgacha. er yuqori burchakli burunli tomirlar va deyarli vertikal ravishda kesilgan, ba'zan uning pastki qismida ba'zi sirli cho'qqilar bilan ustunlik qildi. Ular bir dovonni deyarli markazda olib yurishardi (ayrim hollarda hatto biroz chayqalib ketgan edi), katta to'rtburchaklar, deyarli kvadrat, suzib. Shu bilan birga, bir xil yumaloq va yuksak ko'tarilgan old oyoqli va yarim oyga o'xshash kemalar ham tasvirlangan. Keyinchalik muhrlarda ushbu turdagi kemalarning suratlari ustunlik qiladi. Agar siz eng diqqat bilan tayyorlangan tasvirlarga ishongan bo'lsangiz, ba'zi kemalar har tomondan 10 dan 15 gacha bo'lgan, ya'ni 17-25 metr uzunlikda bo'lishi mumkin edi.

Kritliklar Egey dengizining orollarini egallab, Kiprda va Rodosda koloniyalar qurdilar, ularning savdo postlari O'rta Yer dengizi bo'ylab tarqalib ketdi, Ugaritdan Sitsiliya va janubiy Italiyaga tarqaldi. Krit va Bolqon yarim orolining qirg'og'i bo'lib, mil. II. er Myken sivilizatsiyasi rivojlandi. Miloddan avvalgi 1470-yillar. er Cretan orollari jamoalarining aksariyati Santorin vulqoni (Tera) vulqonining portlatilishi oqibatida jilovlandi va ularning portlari, ehtimol, tsunamidan vayron bo'ldi. Krit, tabiiy ofatdan qutqarilmasdan zaiflashgan va jangari Myken tomonidan qo'lga olindi. Biroq, ikkinchisi, Minoan madaniyatining merosini saqlab qololmadi - Myken madaniyati, o'z navbatida, muhojirlar va bosqinchilarning yangi to'lqinlarini yo'q qildi. XV asrning oxiriga kelib. BC er Krit (Keftiu) va Misrdagi matnlarga havolalar yo'qolib ketadi.

Kritning tsivilizatsiyasi va uning kengayish chegaralari haqida, asosan, arxeologik qazishmalar va yunon afsonalari - Erta Kritancha hece harflari ("A" satriy harfi) hali aniqlanmaganligini bilamiz. Girit dengizchilarining Atlantika okeaniga borishi, Kanar orollari va Azorlarni kashf etgan fenikelariylar yoki yunonlar emasligi haqida gap borardi. Ammo, bu madaniyatning asosiy yutug'i - birinchi dengiz hukmronligi va dengiz savdo yo'llarini kashf etish edi. Bu faniiyaliklar va yunonlar tomonidan meros qilib olingan, ularning ko'p asrlik kurashlarining maqsadi.

Fenikellar

Kema qurilishi san'ati, navigatsiya, savdo-sotiq va mustamlaka faoliyati, hatto qadim zamonlarda ham, Finikiyaliklar barcha boshqa xalqlardan ustun kelishdi. Odamlarning nomi foiniklar bo'lib, mamlakatning ismi yunon chiqqan, foenike bo'lib, Gomerga qaytadi. Bu yunon folixiyasidan - qizil, binafsha rangdan iborat bo'lib, binafsharanglarning mashhurligi bilan mashhur bo'lgan binafsha mato bilan bog'liq. Yaqinda o'qilgan Myken tilidagi matnlarda po-ni-ki-ja, shuningdek, "qizil" degan ma'no bor. Mahalliy manbalar mamlakatni Kanaan (Biblical Kan'on) va xalq - Kan'oniylar, hech bo'lmasa XV asrdan boshlab, chaqiradi. BC er (Idrimi haykali bo'yicha Akkad yozuvi, Memphisdagi Amenhotep II Misr steli). Yunon davrida bu ism Finikiyada chop etilgan "Laodikiya Kan'onda" deb nomlangan sikkalarda mavjud. Nousy'dagi akkadiy matnlar "kulrang" ma'nosini anglatuvchi kinahhu so'zini o'z ichiga oladi va bu yunon fo'ngxisiga bevosita aloqador bo'lishi mumkin.

Hatto uzoq vaqtlarda ham fenikellar jahon savdosini tashkil qilishdi. Taxminan 2500 yil. er Levkos Limen va Koptos orqali Misr bilan tovar almashinuvini ta'minlaydi va Memfis va Koptos savdo postlarini tashkil qiladi; Bundan tashqari, ular Erzuriya ko'rfazida joylashgan Ieropolis ko'rfaziga kirib, u erdan Nilga boradigan kanal bo'ylab Nil deltasiga yetib borishadi.

Keyinchalik Fenikeliler tomonidan ishg'ol qilingan hudud, xususan, Osiyo va Afrikaning quruqlikda joylashgan hududlari va dengiz sohalari bo'lgan O'rta dengiz va Qizil dengizlar suvlari uning geografik pozitsiyasida savdo aloqalarni rivojlanishiga yordam berdi. Zamonaviy talablarga javob beradigan barcha qirg'oqlarda bandargohlarni topish imkoni bo'lmasa-da, ammo u vaqtlarda kichkina va kamroq idishlarga ehtiyoj sezilmadi, buning uchun kam sonli koylar etarli darajada edi. Lubnondagi Fenikristlarni eksport qilish mis va temirdan, sadr daraxtidan va zardo'zdan, ya'ni mukammal kema quruvchi materialdan, kenevadan va boshqalardan tashkil topgan.

Afsonalarga ko'ra, Finikiyalik navigatsiya baliqchilik bilan boshlangan. Ehtimol, Fenikeliler qadimgi zamonlarda juda chiroyli, deb hisoblangan binafsha matolarni bo'yash uchun ishlatiladigan va imtiyozli odamlar orasida farq qiladigan, binafsha matolarning kamdan kam va yuqori baholangan binafsharang qobiqlarni tutishga juda qiziqishgan. Fenikeliler quruqlikda bu matolarni ishlab chiqarish va bo'yash, shisha ishlab chiqarish va boshqa sanoat ishlab chiqarish bilan shug'ullanishgan. Binafsha rangli qobiqlarda faqat bir tomchi rangli suyuqlik bor edi, shuning uchun ularga talab juda yuqori edi. Katta dengizchilik qobiliyatiga ega bo'lgan, hatto juda uzoq vaqtlarda Fenikeliler buyuk kemalardagi yirik Livan sadrlarini qurdilar va ularni o'sha paytgacha Kichik Osiyo qirg'og'ining janubiy qismida Rodos , Yunon arxipelagiga va Yunonistonga, u erdan esa Qora dengizga.

XIII asrdan beri. BC er Biroq, ular bu suvlardan asta-sekin "dengiz xalqlari" (ularning ichida yunonlarning ajdodlari bo'lgan) tomonidan ularni harbiy kuchlari orqali ortda qoldirib ketishgan. Keyinchalik, ular savdo sohasini O'rta dengizning g'arbiy qismiga ko'chirdi: Sitsiliya, Tunis va keyin Herkules ustunlari (Gibraltar Boğazları) Atlantika okeanigacha, miloddan avvalgi 1100-yillarda asos solgan. er Hades shahri (Cádiz) va uning shimolida Guadalquivirning og'zida kumush Tartessga boy bo'lgan. Keyinchalik ular Angliyaning janubi-g'arbiy qismida (Cornwall), u erdan olib kelingan qalayni eksport qilishdi, bu talab juda baland edi, chunki u turli xil haykallarni tayyorlash uchun bronza tayyorlash uchun zarur edi. Biroq, Angliya kalay O'rta dengizga eksport qilingan yagona joydan uzoq edi. Eng qadimgi kalay konlari Ichki Anatoliyada joylashgan edi, lekin ular mil. Avv. 2000 yillarda deyarli rivojlangan. er Miloddan avvalgi 1300-yillarda Cape Ulu Burun yaqinidagi (Kichik Osiyo, Likiya) yaqinida topilgan topilma. er Kalay va mis qotirgichlari bilan to'ldirilgan kan'onlik kemasi boshqa kalay konlarini topishga yordam berishi mumkin. Metall chig aning tahlillari, ular Angliya (Cornwell), Ispaniyadan yoki Sharqiy Evropadan emas, balki har qanday holatda sodir bo'lganligini ko'rsatdi. Ehtimol, o'sha vaqtda Sharqiy O'rtaer dengizi Eron yoki Markaziy Osiyodan xalos bo'lishi mumkin. Miloddan avvalgi 1200-yillarda Uluburun kemasidan mis qoldiqlar va Cape Gelidonija (Kichik Osiyodagi janubiy qirg'oq bo'yi) yaqinidagi boshqa Kan'on kemasidan tahlil qilingan. e) ularning kelib chiqishi haqida dalolat beradi. Kipr

Gibraltarning janubida, Finikiyaliklar Cape Verde'ye etib borgan va ehtimol, Sierra Leonega yetib kelishgan. Biroq ular bu soha bilan chegaralanib qolmadi - ular Qizil dengiz bo'ylab Hind okeaniga, Malabar qirg'og'iga va Tseylonga borib, Afrikaning Zanzibar va Zambezi qirg'oqlari bo'ylab janubiy qirg'oqqa yetib kelishdi. Jasorat va sabr-toqatni inobatga olgan holda, Necho shohining ko'rsatmasiga ko'ra, taxminan 600 g. Masalan, Vasco de Gama'dan oldin, 2600 yil mobaynida ular Afrikani uch yil ichida aylanib chiqdi va Gibraltar orqali uylariga qaytdi. Ko'pincha qirg'oq bo'ylab suzardi, ular taniqli suvlarda ular ochiq dengizga tushish xavfiga tushishdi, kechasi esa qutb yulduziga rahbarlik qilishdi. Vodiysiga yaqin joylarda ular bilan doimiy aloqada bo'lishgan. O'rta er dengizi va Qora dengiz sohillari bo'ylab Hades va Mogadorga (Marokash) qadar bir qator mustamlakalarni asos solgan, ammo faqat savdo stantsiyalari va savdo postlari shaklida qurilgan.

Odamlar va xalqlar almashinuvida vositachi bo'lib xizmat qiluvchi savdo deyarli insoniyat uchun qadimgi. O'zaro almashinuvga erishish istagi inson tabiatiga bog'liq. Antik davrda savdo-sotiq dunyodagi hukmronlik deb e'lon qilinishi mumkin bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, uning savdo-sotiq hajmi faqat O'rta er dengizi davlatlari va Hindiston bilan cheklangan bo'lsa-da, boylik manbai bo'lib xizmat qilgani kabi, bugungi kunda juda katta ahamiyatga ega emas edi. ularning barchasi madaniyatning rivojlanishi bilan ortdi.

Harakatning tezkor yo'llari bo'lmagan va hatto post bo'lmaganida ham savdo tashkil etilishi bugungi kungacha keskin farq qilardi. Hindlar, Xaldeylar va Misrliklar tashqari madaniyatli odamlar bilan savdo qilishda, Finikiyaliklar bizning zamonamizda ichki Afrikaning Negro qabilalari va Janubiy arxipelagalarning vahshiylari bilan savdo munosabatlarida ishlatiladigan taxminan bir xil usullardan foydalanganlar. Ular hech narsa ishlab chiqarmayotgan bu vahshiylar bezaklar va bezak shaklidagi bezaklarni va porloq narsalarni, rangli sharflar va boshqalar bilan almashtirishga da'vat etiladi. Tropikada tabiat, odamlardan yordam so'ramasdan, mevalar, kauchuk, fil suyaklar va h.k. O'rta er dengizi qirg'og'i va Buyuk Britaniyani va Skifiya kabi og'ir hududlarda yashovchilar issiq kiyim, uy-joy, ov qurollari, baliq ovlash va urush haqida g'amxo'rlik qilishlari kerak edi. Uzoq vaqt davomida hech qaysi mamlakat o'z mamlakatlari asarlaridan qoniqish qobiliyatiga ega emas, xususan, savdo yo'li bilan boshqa mamlakatlarning ishlarini bilib olgan; savdo munosabatlari ular bilan aloqada bo'lgan barcha sohalarda rivojlanishiga yordam beradi. Tovar ayirboshlashi ko'chmanchi xalqlar orasida ham bo'lishi mumkin, lekin haqiqiy savdoning o'zi faqat xalqning yashash davri boshlanishi va dehqonchilikning boshlanishi bilan boshlanadi. Shu bilan birga, birja savdolari har ikki tomon o'ziga xos qiymati yoki tanga qiymatini belgilashga qadar davom etadi. Dastlab bunday tangalar yirik qoramol, mo'ynalar, qobiqlar, tuz, temir, oltin qum va boshqalar kabi turli narsalar edi. Keyinchalik qimmatbaho metalldan tayyorlangan ma'lum bir pulning pullari muomalaga chiqarildi, birinchi navbatda, keyin zarb etildi. Finikiya pul birliklari va Falastin, Suriya va Arabiston xalqlari shekel, ya'ni "og'irligi" (11,2-12,2 gramm kumush) edi. Yusuf Misrga ketgan Ismoillarning karvoniga 20 kumush tanga sotildi.

Qadimgi savdo-sotiqda suvda harakat qilish usullarini kashf qilishdan oldin boshlanganligi sababli, dastlab faqat quruqlik savdosi mavjud edi, bu juda uzoq vaqtni hayajonga solmoqda.

Afrikaning tubida va shu kungacha, Misrda miloddan avvalgi 200 yilgacha bo'lgan porterlardan keyin tovarlarni tashish uchun. er ishlatilgan eshak va keyinchalik otlar. Semitik qabilalarda "cho'l kemalari" xuddi shu maqsadda ishlatilgan - tuya, suvsiz joylar orqali mollarni tashish uchun mos bo'lgan yagona hayvonlar. To'qqiz soatlik bir kunlik o'tish uchun kichik bir xazina bilan tekis joyda tuya 170 kilometrni tashkil etishi mumkin.

Savdo va diniy va milliy festivallar o'rtasidagi aloqalar juda xarakterlidir. Ularning har doim savdogarlarning savdo ishlari uchun foydalangan xalqlarning katta qo'shilishiga olib keldi. Shunday qilib, bayramlar har doim yirik savdo kunlari va yarmarkalar, masalan, Xaran, Delos, Olympia va hokazolar bilan mos keladi. Bu hodisa bugungi kungacha saqlanib qoldi. Bunday hollarda savdo-sotiq aloqalari uchun qulay bo'lgan joy va uning atrofida doimo tinchlik va osoyishtalik hukm surganligi savdo uchun juda muhim edi.

Ming yillar mobaynida savdo yo'llarining yo'nalishi mutlaqo o'zgarmas edi. Fenikiston savdolari uchun eng muhim yo'nalishlar quyidagilardan iborat edi: Misrdan G'azo orqali Quddusga boradigan yo'l, Tir va boshqa Finikiya shaharlaridan Kichik Osiyodagi qirg'oqqa boradigan yo'l. Boshqa bir yo'nalish O'lik dengizning Etsion-Geber sharqidan va Iordaniya dan Damashqga borib, u erda Tirdan tekis bo'lgan yo'l bilan birlashdi. Damashqdan uchta marshrut bor edi: shimoldan Halep (Halep) bilan Mesopotamiyaning eng yirik xarid qilish markazlari Mabug va Harran (Carras); Masalan, Palmyra (Tadmor) dan ikkinchi yo'l, Uchinchisi - Furot daryosida (Abu-Seray). Ushbu daryo og'izdan Samosata, taxminan 1900 kilometrdan ziyod kichik kemalar uchun sayohat qilish mumkin edi. Nebuchadnezar (mil. Avv. 605-562) davrida chuqurlashtirilganidan so'ng Tipsachga qadar kemalar mavjud edi. Shunga qaramasdan, Arabistondan olingan mahsulotlar asosan karvon yo'llari orqali Bobil va Harranga yo'l oldi. Sharqiy yo'nalishda Harrandan Shimoldagi Afg'oniston shimolidagi Baqtrga (Balx) Media va Fors orqali yo'l ochib, Tipsach yo'lidan birlashib, Hindiston va Xitoyga savdo yo'llariga yaqinlashdi. Sharqdan, Tipsach va Harrandan yo'llar Simir va O'rta er dengizi bo'yidagi eng yaqin Finikiya bandargohi bo'lgan Aradga yo'l oldi. Bundan tashqari, Fenikeliler Baltic dengizi yo'lini bilishardi: ulardan biri Olbia'dan Dniester'den Galiçya'ya qadar va Amber sohilga qadar bo'lgan bug 'og'zidan ketdi; Adriyatik dengizining shimoliy qismidan ikkinchi qismi esa Bohemiya va Sileziya orqali o'tadi.

Tuproq yuklarini tashishning yuqori xarajati, erning yuki faqat boylar uchun mavjud bo'lgan hashamatli mahsulotlardan tashkil topganligining sababi edi. Qadimgi antik davrdagi ijtimoiy sharoitda aholining boylari va kambag'allari keskin ravishda ajratilib, zamonaviy o'rta sinf yo'q edi. Shu sababli, kambag'al sinflarga mavjud bo'lgan ehtiyoj va qulaylikdagi ulgurji savdosi, shuningdek sanoat ehtiyojlari uchun xomashyo faqatgina dengiz yo'llari orqali amalga oshirilishi mumkin; Fenikalik savdolari asosan dengizchilikka aylandi. Hindiston, qadimgi madaniy mamlakat bo'lib, uning boyligi va farovonligi boshqa sohalarda doimo katta talabga ega bo'lib, keng savdoni rivojlantirishga olib keldi. Qadim zamonlardan beri Hindiston quruq yo'lda Xitoy bilan yirik savdo aloqalari bilan shug'ullanadi. Eksport ob'ektlari ziravorlar va ildizlar, ipak, oltin, marvaridlar va olmoslar, matolar, metall mahsulotlar, paxta, guruch va boshqalar edi. Fenikeliler Hindistonning dengizga tomon joylashishidan foydalanib, Hindiston bilan barcha dengiz savdolarini olib tashladilar. U erda ular balsam, xushbo'y tutatqilar va o'z mamlakatining boshqa mahsulotlarini olib kelib, ibodat qilish vaqtida ko'p miqdorda ishlatilgan va ularni Hindiston mahsulotiga almashtirganlar. Hindiston va Arabiyadan Misrga, Qizil dengizdagi Levkos Limen portiga, ular quruq yo'l orqali Nilda Koptosga olib ketilgan joyga olib kelishdi yoki ular Arsinoe (Suzish) va Etzion-Geber (Aqaba) shaharlariga olib borildi va u erdan kanal orqali Bubastis va Misrga, quruqlikdan G'azo va Kan'ongacha.

Fenikellar va Misr xalqlari o'rtasidagi munosabatlar qadim zamonlardan beri o'tkazilgan ushbu savdo munosabatlaridan kelib chiqib, Misrning asosiy shahri Manfas shahri butunlay Fenikeliler tomonidan joylashtirilgan va O'rta Yer dengizidagi barcha dengiz savdolari monopoliyasi bo'lgan. Misol uchun, hind va arab mahsulotlarini qisman qishloq xo'jaligi mahsulotlari: don, zig'ir, paxta va papirus, qisman sanoat mahsulotlari: gilamlar, liboslar, zig'irpoya, metall, yog'och va charm mahsulotlari, arqonlar, tarmoqlar va boshqa mahsulotlar Bu mahsulotlar Fenikeliler tomonidan O'rta er dengizi sohillarida, shuningdek, o'z mamlakatlarining qimmatbaho mahsulotlari: kema quruvchi yog'och, kenevir va Fenikiyadagi sanoatda ishlangan binafsha mato shaklidagi asarlar bilan taqsimlanadi. raqiblarini, shuningdek temir loy va shisha mahsulotlar; Yunonistondan sharob va yog ', Angliyadan kalay va bu yerga juda qimmatbaho amber qo'shildi. Keyinchalik, XVI-XIII asrlarda joylashgan Mycenae shahridagi shoh mozorlarini qazish paytida juda ko'p sonda topilgan. BC er

Hindistondan boshqa barcha madaniyatli davlatlar tomonidan ko'p miqdorda saqlanayotgan shubhasiz qullar shubhasizdir (Strabo, XV.1, 34, 54, 59). Qullik haqidagi aniq ma'lumot yo'q, ammo ma'lumki, Misrlik shoh Ramses III (mil. Avv. 1185-1153) o'z hukmronligi davrida 113.433 ta qulni, ya'ni ruhoniy kastlarni; Afinadagi bepul qullikka 20 ta qul bor edi, Aegina kichik orolida esa qullarning soni 470 mingga etdi, ulardan faqat kichik bir qismi mahalliy aholi bo'lib, ularning aksariyati boshqa mamlakatlardan keltirildi. Vaqtning harbiy qonunlari g'olibga mag'lubiyatga uchraganlarning hayoti va mol-mulkini yo'q qilish uchun cheksiz huquq berdi. Urushga mahkum bo'lganlar odatda qul bo'lib qoldilar va shuning uchun Finikiyalik savdogarlar armiya va filonlarning orqasida penslar uchun harbiy asirlarni sotib olish uchun borardi. Ba'zi yovvoyi qabilalar o'z qavmlarini sotdilar va bu hodisa isroilliklar orasida ham sodir bo'ldi. Qul savdosining markaziy nuqtasi Tyre edi va asosiy qul bozorida bir kun davomida bir necha ming qullar ba'zida sotilgan (Strabo, XIV, 4; 2) muqaddas orollari bo'lgan Delos edi.

Ko'p asrlar davomida dengiz savdosida raqobatchilari bo'lmagan finesiklar (yunonlar o'z chegaralaridan tashqarida faqat 800-yillarda chegaradosh dengiz savdo-sotiqlarini boshlaganlar, G'arb davlatlari ham keyinchalik) uni butunlay monopol qilib, katta daromad olganlar.

Savdo va yuk tashish qobiliyatiga ega bo'lgani kabi, ular o'zlarini boshqa mamlakatlarda qoldirdilar; savdo aloqalari, uning tovarlari, portlari va aloqa yo'nalishlarini, xalqning talab va istaklarini, qonunlari va moliyasini amalga oshirgan mamlakatning barcha shartlarini to'g'ri baholash imkoniyatini bergan yaxshi rivojlangan tijoriy ma'noga ega edi. Eng yaxshi savdogar uchun halollik birinchi navbatda bo'lishi kerak; uzoq muddatli savdo munosabatlari o'rnatilgan taqdirda oddiy fikrni talab qiladi; har ikkala tomon uchun ham foydali bo'lgan bitim sog'lom deb hisoblanishi mumkin, har bir kishi boshqasiga beradigan narsa uchun unga berilgan eng katta ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan narsani oladi.

Fenikellarning hech qachon ideal savdogarlari bo'lmagan. Ular asosan moddiy yutuq va zavq-shavq izladilar; oliy maqsadlar, ilmiy, milliy va umuman olganda ideal intilishlar ularga begona edi. Savdoni o'tkazish ularning yagona maqsadi edi. Pullarni hali bilmagan madaniyatli odamlar bilan aloqa o'rnatish, ular tarqatish uchun savdogar, ya'ni yordamchi bir vaqtning o'zida bir kema egasi va yuk egasi bo'lib, uni ko'proq daromadli joyga sotgan. Fenikaxoniylar o'zlarining davlatini kengaytirishga yoki kuchga ega bo'lishga yoki sahro xalqlarining ma'naviy-ma'rifiy ishlarida manfaatdor emaslar; boshqa xalqlar va davlatlar haqida o'z bilimlarini kengaytirishga umid qilmaganlar - agar ular bu haqda g'amxo'rlik qilsalar, qadimgi dunyo haqidagi bilimimiz haqiqatdan ancha kengroq bo'ladi. Dengiz savdoidagi monopoliyani saqlab qolish va raqobatga tushishdan qo'rqib, ular o'z safarlarini va maqsadlarini sir tutishdi va ular haqida bilgan mamlakatlar va dengizlar haqida hech kimga ma'lumot bermadilar.

Dengizdagi dahshatli voqealar haqida Sylt-Baysdagi xavfli qirg'oqlar, Sylla va Charybdis kabi dengizdagi dahshatli voqealar, suvning boshqa joylarda juda qalin ekanligi, kemalarga yopishganligi - bularning barchasi, shubhasiz raqobatchilarni qo'rqitish va ularni ushlab qolish maqsadiga erishgan Fenikristlarning ixtirosidir xorijiy mamlakatlarga sayohat qilish; Fenikalik yolg'onlari qadimgi xalqlar orasida maqtovga aylangan. Bunday vositalar yordam bermagan taqdirda, Fenikristlar zo'ravonlikka qo'l urishdi, raqobatchilarining zaiflashayotgan kemalariga hujum qilishdi va shunchaki samolyotni samolyotga tashladilar.

Shunga qaramay, Finikiyaliklar haqidagi barcha ma'lumotlar bizning raqib va ​​dushmanlar tomonidan qabul qilinganligi va shuning uchun bir tomonlama va yoqimsiz bo'lganligi haqidagi haqiqatni yodda tutish kerak emas. Fenikaxoniylar o'zlari haqida biron bir asar qoldirmadilar. Bundan tashqari, vaqt va u paytdagi sharoitlar ruhini inobatga olish kerak: xalqaro huquq yo'q edi va dengizga ega bo'lgan hech kimga erkinlik berilmagan. O'zini va molini dengizdagi xavf-xatarga etkazgan har bir kishi unga ma'lum bir mukofotni talab qildi. Va foyda nafaqat Finikiyalik savdogarning harakatlarining sababi emas, balki u bir xil bo'lib qoldi va bugungi kungacha savdogarga tegishli. Sirli savdo operatsiyalari bugungi kunda amalda tatbiq etilmoqda, chunki 1814 yilda Zanzibar bilan savdoda Amerika savdogarlarining harakatlari misolida, barcha fillar Boston orqali Bostonga yo'l olgan. Umuman, savdo eng yaxshi insoniy fazilatlarni rivojlantiradigan kasblar qatorida emas.

Biroq, shunga qaramay, Finikiyadagi savdogarlar, umuman olganda, barcha savdo-sotiq kabi, xalqlarning rivojlanish tarixida juda muhim edi. Qadimgi an'analar Fenikelere astronomiya, xronologiya, alfavit, yozuv yozish va hisoblash, metrik birliklar, tanga va hokazolarning "ixtirosi" ni nazarda tutgan bo'lsa-da, aslida bularning barchasi ular tomonidan yaratilmagan, ammo faqat Xaldeylar, Misrliklar va boshqa xalqlardan qarz oldi . Ammo bu bilimlarni antik davrda mashhur bo'lgan butun dunyoga tarqatgan.

Shunga o'xshab, Fenikelilerin faoliyatlari janubiy Evropa va Shimoliy Afrikada, Osiyoda yetishtiriladigan foydali o'simliklar, bug'doy, moyli, uzum va mevali daraxtlarni taqsimlashda, shuningdek, taqsimlashda ishlab chiqarish va sanoat, masalan, to'qimachilik va metall mahsulotlari, va to'qimachilik va bo'yash kabi sanoatning o'zlari. Fenikeliler fan va san'atning distribyutorlari, shuningdek, davlat tizimi va diniy e'tiqod shakllari edi. Bu shuni anglatadiki, Fenikeliler bilan tez-tez aloqada bo'lgan qadimiy xalqlar diniy e'tiqod sohasida ular bilan juda ko'p umumiy bo'lgan: Fenikiyalik Melkart Herkulesga o'xshash, Afrota bilan Astarte va boshqalar.

Fenikeliler dengizchilik, kema qurish, navigatsiya va hokazolarda innovatsiyalarga ega edilar. So'nggi yillarda (1999 yil iyun oyida) Ashkelon Feniksens savdo kemalarida, taxminan mil. Av. 750 va 700-yillarda cho'kib ketgan. er qirg'oqdan 50 km uzoqlikda, qadimgi kemachilar ochiq dengizga chiqmaslikka va erni ko'zdan qochmaslikka urinishganini isbotlaydilar. Ushbu kemalar, odatda savdo kemalari (16 va 18 m uzunlikda, 3: 1 uzunlikdan to kenglik nisbati) Kan'ondan sharob va moy (har biri taxminan to'rt yuzga yaqin 18-20 litr amforani ko'tarib), Ehtimol, Misr yoki Karfagendan yuborilgan. Fenikellarning navigatsiya sohasida ustuvorligi, qadimiy qadimgi barcha madaniy xalqlarning dengiz ishlari bilan juda keng tarqalganligi bilan izohlanadi va shu bilan bir xil kiyim va jamoa shlyapalari kabi mish-mishlar tarqaldi.

Navigatsiya darajasi yuqoriligi tufayli qaroqchilik va qul savdosi Fenikeliler orasida boshqa har qanday odamdan ko'ra ko'proq rivojlangan va bu mashg'ulotlarda qadimgi (Odyssey XV; 402 ff.) Har qachongidan ko'ra ko'proq qobiliyat va qahramonlik ko'rsatgan.

Fenikellarning savdo ruhiga muvofiq ularning mustamlakachi siyosati bor edi. Ular yangi davlatlarni yaratishga intilmadilar, ammo faqat savdo maqsadlariga xizmat qilgan faqat savdo postlarini tuzdilar. Mahalliy aholi kuchli bo'lsa, Finikiyaliklar savdo huquqi uchun ularga ma'lum miqdorda pul to'lashni va'da qildilar. Agar zaif bo'lsalar, ular o'zlariga bo'ysundirishdi va katta mahorat bilan mamlakatning barcha mumkin bo'lgan foydalarini olishni boshladilar. Shunday qilib, ular Kipr va Trakiyada ma'danlarni sotib olib, ko'p mis va oltin olib kelishdi.

Mustamlakachilik siyosatining yana bir asosiy printsipi - begona odamlarning mol-mulkiga yo'l qo'ymaslik; bu mustamlakachilik boyliklarini faqat o'zlari ishlatish uchun qilingan. Masalan, ular Kiprda, Korsika va Sarduniyada joylashgan Etrushkanlar joylashgan joylarga yo'l qo'yishmadi: qit'alardagi koloniyalarda aholi yashaydigan joy atrofida keng maydonlarni vayron qilishdi, shunda ular yashovchilarning qo'shnilari bilan aloqasi yo'q edi. Suvlarida ular boshqa xalqlarning sayohatlariga to'sqinlik qilishdi. Shunday qilib, bir necha asrlar mobaynida ular yunonlarni Tartesse (Andalusiya) ga kirib kelishdi, ular katta miqdorda kumush qazib olishdi. Faqat mil. Avv. 630-yilda. er bo'ron yunonlarni Samosdan, Kolay ismli yunonni olib kelib, o'z kemasini kumush bilan to'ldirib, uyiga qaytib, yurtdoshlariga ajoyib mamlakat haqida gapirib berdi.

Fenik davlati (Kan'on) haqida qisqacha hikoya qilamiz. Vaqtning eng yirik madaniy davlatlari orasida uning geografik mavqei: Bobil, Ossuriya, Lidiya va Forslar, bir tomondan Misr, boshqa tomondan, savdo aloqalarni rivojlantirish uchun foydalidir, ayni paytda mustaqillikni saqlab qolish uchun murakkab tashvishlar. Qo'shni hukmdorlarning qo'zg'olonini bartaraf etish uchun mustaqil milliy ruhga ega bo'lgan birlashgan, urushga o'xshagan odamlar kerak edi. Fenikelariylar hech qachon bunday odamlar bo'lmagan.

Sidon, Tir, Arad kabi yirik shaharlar va qadim zamonlarda Beeble butunlay mustaqil edi, aristokratik tizim tomonidan mustaqil ravishda boshqarildi va faqat bir-birlari bilan birlashib, etakchi rol o'ynaydigan shaharlardan biri edi. Bunday sharoitlarda mamlakatni himoya qilish kuchli emas edi, u hujumchilarga osonlik bilan jalb qilindi; shaharlar odatda ixtiyoriy ravishda yoki qisqa qamaldan keyin taslim bo'lib, o'z mustaqilligini yo'qotgan. Ularga katta miqdorda imtiyozlar berildi va ular o'z kemalarini g'oliblarning ixtiyoriga berishga majbur bo'ldi. Faqat bir dona plastik uzoq vaqt davomida o'zini himoya qila oldi.

Miloddan avvalgi 1500 yilgacha. Masalan, shimoliy shaharlar - Beyrut (Bayrut) va Byblos (Jebal) muhim ahamiyatga ega edi. Keyinchalik, eng qadimgi Finikiya shaharlaridan biri bo'lgan Sidon miloddan avvalgi 1100 yillarga qadar uni orqada ushlab turishga kirishdi. er Iosif Flaviy Timaaga ko'ra, Sulaymon Ma'badining qurilishidan 240 yil oldin, ya'ni, 1200 atrofida Sidon aholisi, "Ascalonians" (ya'ni "Filistlar", "Dengiz xalqlari") shohi mag'lubiyatga uchragan kemalari kemada qochib, Tirni asos solgan. Bu butunlay to'g'ri emas, chunki Tir juda ham oldinroq paydo bo'lgan. Ammo Sidon aholisining bir qismi Tir shahriga ko'chib o'tdi, shaharni qayta tikladi (Tyr davri mil. Avv. 1200 yildan beri). Birinchi besh asr davomida Fenikeliler yunon arxipelagida, Qoradengiz va Liviyada ko'p sonli koloniyalarni tashkil qilgan. Taxminan 1200 yil. er Hippo Afrika va boshqa shaharlarda tashkil etilgan. Fenikelistlarni G'arbiy dengizga (O'rta er dengizi g'arbiy yarmi) kirib borishi bu vaqtga kelib ular yunonlar tomonidan Arxiepelagadan va boshqa joylardan quvilganligi bilan izohlanadi. Tyr, tez rivojlangan, mil. er U Hades (Kadiklar), Utica, Karfagen va boshqalarning bosh rolini o'rnatgan. Bibliya shohlari Devid va Sulaymonning shohi Xiram I davrida shahar eng katta farovonlikka erishgan; Tir shahrining mimarları Quddusda Sulaymon ma'badini qurdilar va Xiram o'zidan Tir shahriga oid ko'pgina binolarni qurdi.

Qirol Xiram hukmronligidan keyingi davr miloddan avvalgi 814 yilda ko'chishga olib kelgan siyosiy beqarorlik bilan tavsiflanadi. er Karfagen malika Elissa (Dido) o'zining abadiy boyligi va aristokratlarning ko'pchiligi bilan. O'sha paytdan boshlab, Karfagen tez sur'atlarda rivojlana boshladi va tez orada mustaqil davlatga aylandi, shunda Tire tushib keta boshladi, biroq hali ham o'zining etakchi rolini saqlab qoldi.

Dastlab materikning qirg'og'ida kichik tekis orolga qaragan Tire, keyinroq bu orolga hujumlardan havfsizlikni kuchaytirdi. Miloddan avvalgi 725 yilda. er Ossuriya shohi Salmonasar V (miloddan avvalgi 726-722 yy.) tomonidan qamal ostida bo'lgan, u uch yil davom etgan, ammo dengizdan ochiq bo'lganligi sababli kuch bilan qabul qilinmagan. Keyinchalik Salmonasar Sidonni va boshqa shaharlarni unga bosib olgan 60 ta (yoki 16ta) kemalarni Tirga hujum qilish uchun bosib olgan edi, ammo Tir shohi Elyu ularni tarixning ma'lum bo'lgan birinchi dengiz jangi uchun 12 ta kemasini mag'lub etdi. Ushbu misolda dengiz kuchining ahamiyati aniq ko'rsatilgan. Lastik 13 yil davom etgan (mil. Avv. 586- 573 yillar) davom etgan Navuxodonosorni qamalga oldi, lekin oxir-oqibat taslim bo'ldi. Keyinchalik, mil. Av. 332-yilda. Misol uchun, mamlakatni etti oylik qamaldan so'ng Tyrni egallashga muvaffaq bo'lgan Aleksandr Makedoniyani mag'lub etdi. Bu vaqt ichida qit'adan orolga bog'langan to'g'on barham topdi, bu hali ham mavjud. Bu Fenikelarlarning siyosiy ahamiyatining tugashi edi; ularning tili va ular o'zlari, xalq sifatida, keyinchalik yo'q bo'lib ketishdi va o'zlariga tegishli hech qanday obidalarni qoldirmadilar. Faqat hozirgi paytda bir qancha fenikiy yozuvlari topilgan.

Fenikelilerin kemani qurish masalasiga kelsak, ular harbiy va tijoriy maqsadlar uchun kemalar orasidagi farqni birinchi bo'lishini o'ylashlari kerak. Ularning savdogarlar kemalari juda keng edi va shuning uchun uzoq kemalaridan farqli o'laroq, ular "yumaloq" yoki "qayiq" (yunoncha Gaulos) deb nomlangan edi, o'rtalar o'rta qismda juda past edi, ammo kamon va quduq suvdan ancha yuqoriga ko'tarildi. Ba'zi kemalar juda katta hajmga yetdi, masalan, Tars shahridan kemalar 500-600 kishiga qadar bo'lishi mumkin edi. Bu harakat asosan suzib yurish yo'li bilan amalga oshirildi, lekin kerak bo'lganda va yelkalar yordamida. Gemilerdeki qaroqchilarni himoya qilish uchun, ba'zan jangchilar oldi. Kema va ularning ustunlariga materiallar sadr edi. Keyinchalik, kichikroq, lekin tezkor harakatlanadigan savdo va transport kemasi paydo bo'ldi. Ushbu turdagi kemalar ot boshi shaklida kamon bezaklarini olib yurishgan va shuning uchun ham, ularning ixtirochisi Hippos nomidan ularni "otlar" (hippos) deb atashgan. Miloddan avvalgi 400 yil. er Fenikeliler haqida gapirganda, Ksenofon ularni yaxshi kemachilar deb ta'riflagan va ularning kemalarida namunali tartibni maqtagan.

Fenikeliler birinchi navbatda juda tor va engil bir qator foydalangan, ya'ni, faqatgina bir qator kema, kemalar (unirems) kemalari sifatida ishlatilgan. Ular sadr daraxti, sadr yog'ochidan mustahkam bo'lib, mis bilan bog'langan (zangdan qochish uchun) mixlar; daryolarning suvlari dengiz suvidan himoya qilish uchun ehtimol mis bilan qoplangan. Amalga oshirish dastlab g'azabdan, so'ngra papirus va kenevirdan chiqarildi. Ikkita turdagi kemalar mavjud edi: o'ttizta shirin (triacon - har bir tomondan 15 irmik) va ellikta savdogar (pentekontrlar - har biri 25 ers). Bu kemalar mil. Avv. 500 yilgacha xizmat qilgan. er battleships, va keyinchalik faqat rivojlangan birliklar va tadqiqot xizmati uchun ishlatiladi.

Qirol Sinayribaning saroyida miloddan avvalgi 700-yilga tegishli. er Finikiyalik kemasining tasviri allaqachon ikki qatorli gey (yunoncha Diera, Latemiya Birema). Ushbu rasm Misrlikdan 900 yildan kattaroq bo'lishiga qaramasdan, yana kema shakli haqida fikr beradi. Keyinchalik Fenikeliler Misrliklarning farqli o'laroq, suv sathining balandligida o'tkir qo'chqor bilan jihozlangan, ya'ni kemaning quroliga o'xshash kemalar qurishdi, ya'ni kemaning qurolidan foydalanib, dengiz urushidagi inqilobni boshladilar.

Bularning barchasidan fenieniklar tarixda katta rol o'ynaganligini, ammo ularning urushlari bilan emas, navigatda bo'lgani kabi xulosa qilishimiz mumkin. Shunga qaramay, bu odamlar, shubhasiz, juda boy iste'dodli, hech qachon siyosiy ahamiyatga ega emas edi. Fenikelilerin boyligi va kuchi ortib borayotgani ko'rinmasa ham, jasur dengizchilar o'z mustaqilligini yo'qotib, xorijiy hukmdorlarning vassaliga aylandilar va nihoyat xalq sifatida g'oyib bo'ldilar. Fenikellar hech qachon dengizda haqiqiy hukmronlikni talab qilmaganlar. Yugurish marshrutlarida ajoyib jasoratlari bilan bir qatorda ular harbiy ruhga ega bo'lmaganligi ham e'tiborga loyiqdir. Shuning uchun ular vatan manfaati uchun ixtiyoriy qurbonlik qilishga jur'at etmadilar, ya'ni kuchli flotni boshlashlari va saqlab qolishlari uchun ular faqat o'z kashfiyotchilarini majburlab olib bordilar. Hech qachon salbiy urushlar qilmaganlar. Misol uchun, ular sezilarli qarshilik ko'rsatmasdan, yunonlarga Arxiepelagiya va Qora dengiz sohillarida ko'pgina boy narsalar berdi. Faqat istisnosiz, siyosiy tarixda muhim rol o'ynagan, O'rta er dengizi okeanidagi fenikalik koloniyasi bo'lgan Karfagen edi.

Fenikeliler o'zlarining o'limiga loyiq edi va ularning fojiali taqdiri, o'z bilimlari va dengiz yo'llarini ehtiyotkorlik bilan va ehtiyotkorlik bilan yashirishiga qaramay, ular o'z raqiblarini - yunonlar olib kelishgan.

Dengiz tashish va kema qurish tarixining asosiy bosqichlari quyida keltirilgan.

    Taxminan 40 000 yil. er

- qayiq, qayiqqa,

- hamma joyda,

- mushaklarning kuchi.

    Mil. Avv. 5000 yil. er

- Barselona, ​​Junk,

- Qadimgi Misr, Xitoy,

- mushaklarning kuchi, suzib.

    Mil. Avv. 2 000 yil. er

- Keel savdogar kemasi, galli,

- O'rta Yer dengizi,

- mushaklarning kuchi, suzib,

- yuk ko'tarish hajmi 30 - 100 tonna.

    Mil. Avv. 1 000 yil. er

- muvozanatga ega bo'lgan qayiq, katamaran,

- Janubiy dengizlar,

- mushaklarning kuchi, suzib.

    Taxminan 700 yil er

- Viking kemasi (Shimoliy Evropa), yuk tashish hajmi 5-30 t,

- mushaklarning kuchi, suzib;

- Arab kemasi - dho, yuk tashish hajmi 20 - 40 t,

    X asr haqida.

- nef, galeas - yuk tashish hajmi 60 - 300 tonna,

- O'rta Yer dengizi,

- yigit - g / n 100 - 400 t,

- Shimoliy Evropa,

- karavel - yuk tashish hajmi 100 - 400 tonna,

- Evropa,

- flutarlar, frigatlar, pinasslar, kesishgichlar - yuk tashish hajmi 200 - 1000 t,

- Evropa,

Dengiz va okeanlarning inson taraqqiyoti uzoq vaqt oldin, birinchi davlatlar va sivilizatsiyalar paydo bo'lishidan ancha oldin boshlangan. Ko'pgina mamlakatlarning afsonalari va afsonalari dengiz bilan bog'liq. Mil. Avv. 4-5 ming yil. er Ming yillar mobaynida asosiy harakatlantiruvchi kuch sifatida ishlatilgan kemalarda suzib chiqdi. Yelkanlar birinchi marta qirg'oq bo'ylab, so'ngra dengiz bo'ylarida sayohat qilishlariga ruxsat berdi. To'g'ri suzib yurgan eng qadimgi dengizchilaridan biri misrliklar edi.

Misr .   Misrliklar Atlantika okeanida okean kruizlarini yaratgan faraz bor. 1969 yilda Thor Heyerdahl  bu gipotezasini isbotlashga urinib, papirusdan tayyorlangan qayiqda Atlantika okrugidan o'tishga urindi, ammo maqsadga erishmadi. Biroq, u yo'lning uchdan ikki qismini tashkil qildi. Misrliklar okeanni kesib o'tishdan qat'i nazar, asosan Nil daryosi qayiqlarida suzib ketdi . Dengiz chiziqlari   Misrliklar faqatgina ishlatilgan xorijga etkazib berish mollari : yog'och, fil suyagi, oltin, mirra. Yurish ochiq shimolga   O'rta er dengizi bo'ylab livanga etib keldi , janubiy yo'nalish   Qizil dengiz va Hind okeani bo'ylab tarqalgan punta   (zamonaviy Somali ). Yuk tashish qiymati  Misrda yanada ko'proq kuchaygan hellenistik davr  uning rivojlanishi. Miloddan avvalgi III asrda. er  Iskandariyada tarixda ilk marotaba qurilgan dengiz chiroqlaribaland 140 m  dengiz sathidan yuqoriroq xIV asrga qadar.

Ammo ko'pchilik dengiz savdo va navigatsiyasi   bor edi rivojlangan   O'rta er dengizi xalqlari orasida - fenikelariylar, karthaginlar va yunonlar .

Finikiya .   Katta Finikiyadagi kemalar harakatga keltirildi yalang'och va yelkan . Fenikeliler kirib keldi  erishish mumkin bo'lgan deyarli barcha mamlakatlarda: Gretsiya, Misr, Arabiston, Hindiston, Ispaniya, Angliya . Ularning erishganligi haqida taxminlar bor Boltiq dengiziolingan amber, kalay va baliq shuningdek, tashrif buyurdi Kanar orollari  va madeira oroli. Haqida miloddan avvalgi olti asr er   Fenikellarning kemalari Qizil dengizdan o'tib, janubdan Afrikani aylanib chiqdi .

Asosiy mavzular eksport  Fenikellar bor edi qimmatbaho metallar va fil suyagi, oziq-ovqat, tutatqilar va tutatqilar, ziravorlar va qullar. Fenikellar o'zingizni  ishlab chiqarishni yaratdi hashamatli mahsulotlar: binafsha bo'yoq, bezaklar, rangli badiiy shisha, sirlari va geografik bilimlari qat'iy ishonch bilan saqlanib qolgan. Non va binafsha rangli savdo hukmronlik sinflarining monopoliyasi edi. Heyday  Fenikellarning savdolari taxminan yetib bordi miloddan avvalgi 1000 yilda. er Shundan keyin tashqi va ichki mojarolarning oqibatida u kamaya boshladi, keyin Finikiya poytaxti Tireni bosib olgach, u bosqinchilarga o'tdi.

Fenikellarning boshqaruvi ko'pgina mustamlakalarni qurish  asosan O'rta er dengizida, dengiz savdolari an'anasini davom ettiradigan turli joylarda. Fenikeliler tomonidan tashkil etilgan bunday koloniyalardan biri karfagen edi.

Karfagen .   Afrikaning shimoliy qirg'og'ida hozirgi Tunis yaqinidagi qulay joyda joylashgan. Savdo  Carthaginians asosiy e'tibor qaratdi g'arbiy O'rta er dengizi sohilida joylashgan, sharqda  uning qismlari hukmron edi yunonlar. Karfagen boshqargan bo'ysundirish  butun sobiq finikiyalik koloniyalar  aslida dengiz savdo-sotiqlarida Finikiyaning o'rnini egalladi. Carthaginians eng intensiv savdo qildilar afrikadaolingan oltin, fil suyagi, xurmo, tuyaqush tuklari, zaytun va qullardir . Yevropadan  Karfagen oldi kumush, jun, non va metallar . Carthaginians o'zlari chiqarildi  asosan matolar, metall va shisha buyumlar .

Eng yuqori kuch  Karfagenga yetib bordi miloddan avvalgi V asrda. er O'rta Yer dengizining eng muhim savdo kuchiga aylanganda. Lekin uning manfaatlari Rim manfaatlari va unga qarshi kurashda duch kelgan, Karfagen mag'lubiyatga uchragan. Miloddan avvalgi 149 yilda. uh . Kartafe edi vayron bo'ldi   erga, uning savdo-sotiq va boyliklari rimliklar qo'liga o'tdi.

Gretsiya . Qadim zamonlarda   yunonlar deyarli savdo qilmagan asosan Fenikelilerin qo'lida to'plangan. Ammo kema qurilishi ishlab chiqildi   u allaqachon o'sha paytda, chunki tabiiy sharoit navigatsiyani afzal ko'rgan. Sariq qirg'oq bo'yida bir qator qulay koylar mavjud bo'lib, Egey dengizidagi ko'plab orollar mavjudligi dengiz o'tish joylariga yordam berdi. Finikiya qulaganidan keyin  yunonlar paydo bo'ldi sharqiy O'rta dengiz savdosiga hukmronlik qiladi. Fenikellarning misolidan keyin ular aylandi koloniyalarni yaratish (250dan ortiq  xarid qilish zavodlar  O'rta va Qora dengizlarda) va asta-sekin oshdi  hammasi kema qurilishi va savdodagi qo'shnilar. Yunon shaharlari koloniyalari qoldiqlari bugungi kungacha saqlanib qolgan. Madaniyat va ilm-fanning rivojlanishi tufayli kema navigatsiyasi rivojlandi. Bu yunonlar birinchi o'rinda turadi  kompilyatsiya qilishda suzish bo'yicha ko'rsatmalar (periples) va dengiz xaritalariixtiro temir anhorlar.

Yunon tilining asosiy mavzusi import  edi bug'doy chunki u Yunonistonning kam miqdordagi va toshbo'ronli tuproqlarida juda oz o'sgan. Yunon shaharlaridan bug'doyni eksport qilish taqiqlangan edi. Yunon tilidagi asosiy mavzular eksport  bor edi sharob, zaytun moyi, qurol, san'at asarlari, loy va metall buyumlar, bezaklar . Afina va boshqa yunon davlatlari borayotgan kuch bilan savdo qullar , ularning soni ko'pincha bepul fuqarolar sonidan oshib ketdi. Yunonistonning gullab-yashnashi va boylik to'planishi bilan paydo bo'ldi  va qaroqchilik, bu haqda birinchi marta allaqachon eslab o'tilgan homerda , garchi garovgirlar va savdogar dengizchilar o'rtasida aniq farq bo'lmasa-da. Qaroqchilik, ba'zan deyarli butunlay dengiz savdolarini to'xtatdi, va Perikl davridan buyon shafqatsiz kurash bo'ldi.

Yunoniston hokimiyatining qulashi bilan u o'zini va koloniyalarini Rim hukmron qilgan.

Rim .   Rimliklarga bo'lgan karagaginiyaliklar va yunonlardan farqli o'laroq kech navigatsiya san'atini o'zlashtirdi. Ular harbiy qobiliyatlari tufayli O'rta er dengizi va Qoradengiz dengizidagi savdo kemalarini o'z manfaatlariga moslashgan. O'rta er dengizi "Rim dengizi" deb nomlana boshladi va Rim imperiyaning poytaxti bo'lib qoldi. Rimda imperiya va qo'shni davlatlarning barcha viloyatlaridan mol-mulk oqimlari oqardi.

G'arbiy Rim imperiyasining qulashi va o'z hududining barbarlar tomonidan bosib olinishi bilan savdo-sotiqning qiymati pasayib ketdi. U davrning asosiy kemasi uzoq vaqtdan beri harbiy maqsadlar uchun ishlatilgan galereya edi.

Yevropa bo'lmagan davlatlar orasida  navigatsiya Xitoy .   Xitoy xronikalari 10 mingga yaqin odamni tashkil etadigan ko'p qavatli kemalar, miloddan avvalgi I-III asrlarda Xitoy kemalarida ishlatiladigan magnit kompas haqida gapiradi. er Xitoyliklarning kiyiklari Meksikaning qirg'oqlariga yetib borgan deb taxmin qilinadi. XV asrda xitoyliklar dunyodagi besh yuz yilga teng bo'lmagan (taxminan 3,800 ta kemalar va 30 mingga yaqin dengizchilar) flot yaratdi.

Xitoy navigatorlarining kashfiyoti - kompas Salbchilar davrida arablarga, so'ngra Evropaga tushdi.

Arab davlatlari   O'rta asrlarda ular Yevropa va Sharqning boshqa mintaqalari o'rtasidagi aloqaga aylandi. Pastga xVI asrga qadar   ularning dengiz san'ati va asbob-uskunalari yo'q yevropadan kam emas va ko'pincha ularni ortda qoldirdi, bu ularning dengiz savdosining muvaffaqiyati bilan bog'liqdir. Arab olimlari qadimgi asrlarda, xususan, Yunonistonning ilmiy ma'lumotlarini o'rgandilar va ko'pchilik uchun minnatdorchilik bilan ular evropaliklarga ham ma'lum edilar. Arab tujjorlari sharqqa uzoqlikda Tinch okeanining chekkalarigacha kirib keldi, bu ko'pgina tarixiy va afsonalar bilan tasdiqlangan.

Yaxshi dengizchilar edi aholisi  Polinezian .   Ular ixtiroga ega katamaran. Kema dengizining yuqori dengiz suvi tufayli, Polineziylar Tinch okeanining hayoti uchun uzoq sayohatlar qilishdi va eng qulay orollarni joylashtirishdi.

Evropada  O'rta asrlarda sakkizinchi asrdan to X asr o'rtalariga qadar  dengiz savdo  aslida falajlangan  Vikinglar .   Ular deyarli barcha Evropa davlatlarining qirg'oqbo'y erlariga kirib, o'z fuqarolarini qullikka sotishdi, o'ldirishdi yoki sotdilar.

Respublikaning Italiyaning savdo shaharlarining ko'tarilishi: Venetsiya va Jenoa Haçlılar davri bilan bog'liq.

Venetsiya .   Venedikning kuchi uchun dengiz yo'llarining muhimligi itni (Venetsiya rahbari) dengizga olib boradigan har yillik marosim bilan ta'kidlangan. Dengiz hashamatli gallereyada lagunga chiqqanda, Adriatik dengizi ostiga oltin uzuk tashladi va marosim so'zlarini aytdi: "Ey dengiz, men bilan sening ustingda o'zgarishsiz va abadiy hukmronlik belgisi bo'lib qolaman".

Salib yurish paytida  Venetsiya aylandi sharq va Yevropaning qolgan qismi o'rtasidagi vositachi, bu Venetsiyalik kema boshqaruvchilariga bog'liq edi, chunki bu sayohatlar ko'plab kemalarni talab qildi. Qamal ham Venedik kemalari tomonidan olib ketildi. Vizantiyani salibchilar tomonidan bosib olgach, Venetsiyaning roli yanada oshdi. Uni asoslaydi qora dengiz sohillarida joylashgan savdo postlaraslida Konstantinopoldagi savdoni monopolizatsiya qiladi. Heyday  Venedikda savdo-sotiq rivojlanmoqda xIV asrga qadaru bilan savdogar dengiz floti  taxminan tashkil topgan 3000 gallon kemalariva dengiz flotibirinchisini himoya qilish uchun xizmat qilganlar 45 ta oshxonadan va 12000 askardan iborat. Venedik tujjorlari musulmon xalifalik qulashidan foydalanib, bir qancha musulmon hukmdorlari bilan savdo munosabatlarini saqlab qolishdi, u yerlarda (Qohira, Iskandariya, Damashq va boshqa shaharlarda) vakolatxonalar tashkil qilishdi. Hamma joyda ular odatdagi eksklyuziv huquq va imtiyozlarga erishish uchun qidirdilar. Misol uchun, Misrga olib kirilgan tovarlarga nisbatan past vazifalar yuklangan, eksport qilinadigan tovarlar odatda to'lovlarni to'lashdan ozod qilingan. Shimoliy Afrikadan antik davrda bo'lgani kabi, Venetsiyaliklar oltin, qul va fil suyagini olganlar. Venetsiyadagi maxsus elchilar (yer egalari) yerdagi vaziyatni o'rganib, savdo aloqalarini takomillashtirishga hissa qo'shgan batafsil hisobotlarni taqdim etdilar.

Muhim e'tibor  pullik va rivojlanish o'z sanoatidabirinchi navbatda ishlab chiqarish hashamatli mahsulotlar: ipak, kadife, zig'ir mato, brokos, mato, dantel, zargarlik buyumlari. Qurol yaratish  Bu ham eng muhim sohalardan biri edi. Venesiya Evropada ustozlik qiladigan ilklardan biri edi tipografiya.

Ishlab chiqarish sirlari juda ehtiyotkorlik bilan saqlanib, ularni oshkor qilish qamoq yoki o'lim jazosi bilan qo'rqitilgan. Venetsiya birinchi davlatlardan biri edi maxsus organ tashkil etildi  (maxsus xona) baholangan sifat  tomonidan ishlab chiqarilgan mahsulotlar. Savdo qulayligi va rivojlanishi uchun Venetsiyaning dengiz savdo aloqalarini tartibga soluvchi barcha qonunlar birlashtirildi xIII asrda chop etilgan nizom.

Genoa .   Bu shahar - respublika uzoq vaqt davomida Venetsiya raqibi bo'lgan. Vizantiyani (XIII asr) restavratsiya qilishda faol ishtirok etib, bu imperiyada mutlaq savdo huquqlarini qo'lga kiritishda Cenova Venedikni Sharq bilan savdo qilishda, ayniqsa Qora dengizda, bir muddat bosib oldi. Qrimda Cenozagi asosiy savdo omili Kaffa (zamonaviy Theodosius) bo'lib, savdo-sotiqning asosiy mavzusi bug'doy va slavyan qullari. O'zining ishlab chiqarishi Venetsiyaga qaraganda kamroq rivojlangan, ammo Cenova u kema qurilishi, qurol, mato va charm mahsulotlari ishlab chiqarish bilan mashxur edi.

Va Venetsiyava Genoa  kela boshladi pasayish davrida  Turklar tomonidan Vizantiya va Misrni bosib olgach, XV asr). Ular hind mollarini, shuningdek Shimoliy Qoradengiz hududidan tovarlar sotib olishni to'xtatdilar. Ularning barcha mustamlakalari fath qilingan va mavjud bo'lgan. Ammo boylikbo'lgan edi to'plangan  Bu shaharlarda - respublikalarda edi moddiy-texnik bazasi  Evropa, birinchi navbatda, italyancha Uyg'onish davri.

Xanse ligasi .   "So'z" Hansa"Qadimgi nemis tilidan tarjima qilingan" hamkorlik "degan ma'noni anglatadi. Hanseatic ligasi asta-sekin shakllana boshladi ( o'n uchinchi asrdan boshlab) va Shimoliy Germaniyaning birinchi qirg'oq shaharlaridan iborat bo'lgan. Bu davrda gulduros (XV asr) U birlashdi yevropaning qariyb 90 shahri. Boshqaruvchi  Ittifoq shaharni egalladi Lubeck. Hansaning asosiy savdo yo'nalishlari dengizchilik edi, chunki o'sha vaqtda Evropada quruqlik tashish xavfi juda yuqori edi. Bundan tashqari, quruqlik transporti ko'plab to'lovlarni to'lashni talab qiladi, bu esa tovarlar narxini sezilarli darajada oshirdi.

Hansa xalqi aniq parvoz jadvaliga asosan kema laynerlarini tashkillashtirishni birinchi bo'lib amalga oshirdi, eng muhim portlarda transit omborlarni yaratdi, bu esa kemalarni yuklash va tushirishni sezilarli darajada tezlashtirdi .   Sudlarning kamchiliklari chuqur tashkiliy choralar bilan qoplandi. Ular mahalliy bozorlarda iqtisodiy faollikni tiklaydigan periferik yo'nalishlarni namoyish etdilar. Biroq, Venetsiyaliklar kabi, hamma joyda Hanseat savdogarlari o'zlari uchun imtiyoz izladilar, mahalliy ishlab chiqarish va savdo-sotiqni o'z qo'li bilan egalladilar, bu esa mahalliy aholi o'z faoliyati bilan norozilik uyg'otdi.

Asosiy kuchli fikrlar  barter Belgiya shahri edi Brugge  g'arb va rus tillarida Novgorod  Sharqda.

Ivan III ning 1478 yilda Novgorodni qo'lga kiritishi Rossiyada Hanseatizm monopoliyasiga chek qo'ydi.

Oxirgi Hanseatic League tarqaldi o'n ettinchi asrning o'rtalaridaXalqaro savdo markazi G'arbga o'tib, Hindiston va Amerikaga savdo yo'llarini rivojlantirish Gansa ligasining iqtisodiy ahamiyatini susaytirganda.

Buyuk geografik kashfiyotlar davrida dengiz tashish

Bozor iqtisodiyotini rivojlantirish  Yevropada kerak  yangi moliyalashtirish manbalari, qimmatbaho metallarga talab oshdi. Turkiyaning vositachiligida Sharq bilan savdo qilish kam daromad keltirdi. Shu bilan birga, kema qurishining takomillashtirilishi, kemalardagi kompaslar va boshqa navigatsion vositalarni keng joriy etish uzoq umr ko'rishga imkon berdi va zamondoshlarimiz Sharqiy mamlakatlarga dengiz orqali erishish uchun imkon yaratdi. Garchi Amerikani Hindiston emas, balki kashf qilingan bo'lsa-da Kolumbkeyinchalik yangi qit'aning rivojlanishi o'z hududini birinchi bo'lib qo'lga kiritgan davlatlarga ajoyib boylik keltirdi. SavdoO'rta asrlarda ko'pincha mahalliy tabiatda kiyilgan, bo'ladi  albatta xalqaro.

Ispaniya .   Ochilishdan keyin Kolumb  Amerika va Ispaniyaning katta koloniyalarini bosib olishi evropaning kuchli davlati. Imperator davrida Habsburgdan Karl V (1516-56) ga yetadi tepalik  uning kuch.

Eksportni taqiqlash  ko'proq ispan mahsulotlari mamlakat iqtisodiyotini susaytirdi. Sevilya raqami dastgohlarxVI asrning boshida 16-asrda 16 mingdan, 300-yilgacha kamaygan. Vaziyat bor edi kon sanoatiamalda kema qurilishi rivojlanmadi. Bu esa, Ispaniya kemalarining osongina aylanishiga olib keldi garovgirlar o'limiAngliyaning raqiblari Ispaniyaning himoyasi ostida bo'lganlar. Qiyomat « Muvaffaqiyatsiz Armada"1588 yilda taslim bo'ldi ispaniyaning dengiz kuchiga aylanish.

Mamlakat tark etdiChunki aholining barcha qatlamlarining eng g'ayratli va tadbirkor a'zolari tezroq boyitish uchun umid qilib, koloniyalarga to'kildilar. Bir asrdan ortiq xVI asrning o'rtalarigacha XVII asr o'rtalarigacha aholi soni  Ispaniya 30 milliondan 5 milliongacha kamaydi.Shafqatsiz ekspluatatsiya  koloniyalar, ayniqsa, mahalliy aholi - hindlarning, boshlandi  ko'proq va ko'proq izolyatsiya  ularni metropoldagi yakuniy va xIX asrda sodir bo'lgan.

Portugaliya .   Bu mamlakat edi birinchisi  Savdoni ochadigan Evropa mamlakati hindistonga borish (Vasco da gama  1498 yilda). Keyin u, Ispaniya bilan birga, faol ish boshlagan amerika qit'asini magistratura qilish. Ularning orasidagi to'qnashuvlarni oldini olish uchun papa Aleksandr VI  1493 yilda barcha davlatlar ochiq va ochiq bo'lishi mumkin edi.

XVI asr davomida  Portugaliya monopoliya bor edi  savdo bo'yicha sharqiy mamlakatlar bilan  va sharqona mahsulotlar bilan ta'minlangan butun Evropa. Shu bilan birga, Ispaniyada bo'lgani kabi, o'z sanoatida  amalda rivojlanmagan, tayyor mahsulot angliya, Fransiya va Gollandiyadan import qilingan. Barcha kuch  davlatlar tark etdi hindiston va boshqa sharq mamlakatlariga kengayish uchun. Dahshatli  mustamlaka siyosat zaiflashgan  Portugaliya koloniyalarida hukmronlik qilish va ularni targ'ib qilish o'tish  birinchi bo'lib gollandiyalik, keyin ingliz tilida.

XVII asrning oxiriga kelib  Portugaliya yo'qolgan  deyarli hamma narsa savdogar dengiz floti, undan kuch ishlatib, ikkinchi darajali Evropa davlatiga aylandi.

Yangi vaqtda savdo va sotish

Gollandiya   (Gollandiya). Olganman  final mustaqillik  Ispaniya bilan kurashda (1648) mamlakat kirdi  yo'lda jadal iqtisodiy rivojlanish. U yolg'iz tashkil etdi  savdo aloqalari hindiston bilan  va Angliya misolida sharqiy Hindiston Savdo Kompaniyasini asos solgan  Hindiston bilan savdo qilish uchun G'arbiy Hindiston kompaniyasi Amerika bilan savdo qilish uchun. Ammo Ispaniya va Portugaliyadan farqli ravishda uning savdo kuchi asosli edi o'z sanoatini rivojlantirishishlab chiqarilgan mato, zig'ir, chinni, sovun, hashamatli mahsulotlar, charm buyumlar. Gollandiyada bir muncha vaqt bo'ldi. kema qurish markazi  Evropada ( Saardam). Savdo  boshqa Yevropa davlatlari bilan, xususan, Rossiya bilan birga berilgan asosiy e'tibor. Mamlakat Evropa savdosida asosiy vositachi bo'ldi, buning natijasida u katta daromad oldi.

XVII asrning oxiriga kelib  Gollandcha savdogar dengiz floti  bo'ldi eng katta  Evropada 34 ming kema bo'lib, u butun Evropa parkining yarmiga teng edi. U Evropada birinchi dengiz kuchiga aylandi. Ammo ortib bormoqda angliya bilan raqobatlashish  Gollandiyadagi bir qator urushlarga olib keldi mag'lubiyatga uchradi  va dengiz savdo va kema qurish ustunligi Angliyaga ketadi.

Angliya   Ispaniya ustidan g'alaba qozonganidan so'ng, Angliya ishonchli tarzda dengiz kuchiga yo'l ochib berdi. Yaxshi jo'g'rofiy joylashuv bu maqsadga erishishga yordam berdi. Bundan tashqari, Britaniya toji ham faol garovgirlarni qo'llab-quvvatladi  Ispaniya koloniyalari uchun kurashda. Eng baxtli garovgirlar ( G. Morgan, F. Drake, V.Klifford  va boshqalar) chivalryga ko'tarildi. Va faqat xVII asr oxirida, hukmronlik qilgan  dengizda, ingliz garovgirlar uchun shafqatsiz urush e'lon qiladi.

O'quv qo'llanma. F. Drake  (1540-1596 yillar oralig'ida) - ingliz navigatori va vaqt korpusi Elizabet 1. Dunyo bo'ylab sayohat qilish uchun birinchi ingliz (1577-1580 gg.). Ushbu safar davomida garovgirlik harakatlarining oqibatida qirol xazinasiga o'sha paytdagi katta miqdordagi pulni - 500 ming funt sterling (ekspeditsiyaning sof daromadi 4700%) keltirdi. 1588 yilda ispanyol filosunu (mag'lub armada) mag'lub etdi

Angliya Ispaniya va Portugaliya yiqilib tushgan iqtisodiy siyosatda diqqatni tortadi  u qilgandi milliy iqtisodiyotni rivojlantirish.

XVII va XVIII asrlarda. Angliyada keng foydalanilgan himoya choralari  milliy sanoatni himoya qilish. Bilan Elizabeth  (1558-1603) import qilish  ba'zi qayta ishlangan mahsulotlar (masalan, ipak matolar) mavjud edi taqiqlangan. Taqiqlangan  Shuningdek, xomashyo, jun, mashinalar eksporti. Ko'chirma  yuqori malakali ishchilar va hunarmandlar ruxsat berilmaydi. Tayyor mahsulot eksportini rag'batlantirish, aksiz solig'i qaytarib berildi va maxsus tashkilotlar o'rnatildi mukofotlar  tovarlarni eksport qilish uchun. Milliy sanoatni rivojlantirishga bo'lgan tashvish Angliya haqiqatan ham yuzaga kelgan gansi ligasini yo'q qildi, uni imtiyozlardan mahrum qilish va uning vakolatxonasini yopish.

Ammo alohida e'tibor  Angliyada to'lov to'ladi savdo-sotiqni rivojlantirish  va uni ta'minlash harbiy kemalar. Dengiz savdo-sotiq rivojlanishini rag'batlantirish uchun rag'batlantiriladi baliqchilikni rivojlantirish. Fermerlarning noinsizligi ularning sanoatga va fillarga kirib kelishiga yordam berdi.

Muhim rol  Buyuk Britaniyani Evropaning birinchi dengiz kuchiga aylantirdi va butun dunyoda o'ynadi 1651-sonli navigatsiya akti  1660 va 1663 qo'shimchalari kiritilgan U ingliz floti va dengiz savdosining rivojlanishiga katta ta'sir ko'rsatdi va boshqa mamlakatlardagi o'xshash harakatlar uchun namuna bo'ldi. Uning asosiy fikrlar  quyidagilar edi:

- Osiyo, Amerika va Afrikadan Angliyaga olib kelingan barcha tovarlar inglizlar fuqarolariga tegishli bo'lgan kemalarda bo'lishi kerak, ularning ekipaji ingliz kemachilarining kamida 3/4 qismidan iborat;

- Evropa mamlakatlaridan Angliyaga olib kelingan mahsulotlar ingliz kemalarida yoki ular ishlab chiqarilgan mamlakat kemalarida topshirilishi kerak. Shunday qilib, Golland savdo-sotiqning asosiy dengiz vositachisi sifatida Angliya-Golland urushini mag'lubiyatga olib kelgan asosiy daromad manbaidan mahrum bo'lgan;

- Evropa davlatlarining ingliz koloniyalari bilan bevosita savdosiga yo'l qo'yilmadi. Koloniyalardagi barcha mahsulotlar birinchi navbatda ingliz bandargohlariga borishi kerak edi, koloniyaga yuborilgan mahsulotlar faqat ingliz kemalari tomonidan olib ketilishi kerak edi;

- ingliz qirg'oqlari bo'ylab qirg'oq tashish faqat ingliz kemalari uchun ruxsat berilgan edi.

Savdo hajmini kengaytirish uchun atElizabeth   bor edi tashkil etilgan  savdo kompaniyalari:

Levantin - Osiyo va Turkiya bilan savdo qilish uchun;

Afrika - Gvineya va Senegal bilan savdo qilish uchun;

Ostsee - Boltiqbo'yi mamlakatlari bilan savdo qilish uchun;

Rossiya - Rossiya bilan savdo qilish uchun

va Hindiston bilan savdo qilish uchun Sharqiy Hindiston. U Angliya tarixida eng katta qadriyatni oldi, chunki 18-asrning o'rtalariga kelib u Hindistonni deyarli butunlay qo'lga kiritishga muvaffaq bo'ldi. Sharqda eng boy mamlakatning uyatli talon-taroj qilinishi boshlandi. Ingliz tarixshunosiga ko'ra Macaulay: « britaniya hukumati vahshiy despotizmdan qiyinroq edi;  yovuz ruhlarning hukmronligi odamlarning zulmidan ko'ra ko'proq edi". (Iqtiboslar: M.N. Sobolev, jahon savdosi tarixidan olingan esses - SPb .: Allegory LLP, 1994, 122-bet). Faqat sepsoylarning g'alayonidan keyin kompaniya (1858) mavjud bo'lishni to'xtatdi va Hindiston mustaqillikka qadar Britaniya tojining mulkiga aylandi.

Hindistondan tashqari, ingliz ham faol amerika qit'asida tanishtirildi. Shimoliy Amerikadagi kolonistlarning soni o'n ettinchidan o'n sakkizinchi asrning o'rtalarida 200 mingdan 1,300 minggacha oshdi. Doimiy ravishda separatizm paydo bo'lishidan qo'rqqan ona mamlakat cheklangan  imkoniyatlar mahalliy sanoat va savdo rivojlanishi. Amerikaga etkazib beriladigan tovarlar bo'yicha bojxona to'lovlarining ortishi va Shimoliy Amerika davlatlarining mustaqilligini e'lon qilishiga sabab bo'ldi.

Bir vaqtning o'zida inglizlar jahon okeani faol ravishda o'rganish  Angliyaning boshqaruvi ostidagi ko'pgina yangi erlarni va orollarni kashf etmoqdalar. Kapitanning uchta ekspeditsiyasi Angliyani sharqqa kengaytirishda katta rol o'ynadi. J. KukTinch okeanining va Avstraliyaning orollarini kashf etdi va 18-asrning oxiridan boshlab u erda birinchi ingliz ko'chmanchilari paydo bo'ldi.

Boshqa Evropa kuchlarixususan, Frantsiya  at Napoleone I,  keyin esa XX asrning boshlarida Germaniya Britaniya imperiyasining dengiz hukmronligiga chek qo'yish uchun behuda harakat qildi. Frantsuz-Ispaniya aviakompaniyasining Trafalgarda (1805) ingliz filosiga qarshi kurashda va keyinchalik Napoleon  dengizda hukmronlik qilish uchun Frantsiyaning rejalarini yo'q qildi.

Germaniya g'alabasi  Birinchi va Ikkinchi jahon urushlarida, va keyinchalik zaiflashib boradi britaniya imperiyasining tarqalishi itarib yuborishdi  oldingisiga AQSh hozirgi kunda kuchli dengiz va dengiz savdosi parklariga ega. Ikkinchi jahon urushidan keyin AQShning jahon savdosi flotida ulushi 14% dan 20% gacha, Britaniya va Skandinaviya kemalarining ulushi 40% dan 29% gacha kamaydi.

XIX asr oxirida amerikalik admiral A. Mahen  AQSh siyosatining asosiy maqsadi dengiz kuchiga erishishni e'lon qildi. Savdogar filologiyasining huzurida ko'rgan mamlakatning kuchi, uning fikricha, savdo-sotiq iqtisodiy rivojlanishning asosidir. Dengiz fillari birinchi navbatda savdoni tashish xavfsizligini ta'minlashi kerak. Doctrine A. Mahena  Bugungi kunga qadar AQSH dengiz va tashqi savdo siyosatini shakllantirishga salmoqli ta'sir ko'rsatdi.

Yaxshi ishni bilimlar bazasida yuborish oddiy. Quyidagi shakldan foydalaning.

O'quvchilar, aspirantlar, yosh olimlar o'z bilim va tajribalarini o'rganib, bilimlaringizni ishga solib, sizga minnatdor bo'lishadi.

Reja

1. Kirish.

2. Navigatsiya haqidagi birinchi tarixiy ma'lumot. Qadimda navigatsiyaning rivojlanishi:

2.1 Navigatsiya manbasi;

Misr;

2.3 Finikiya;

Karfagen.

3. Zamonaviy Ukraina hududida dengizga chiqishni boshlash:

3.1 Qadimgi Yunoniston;

3.2 Qadimgi Rim.

Xulosa

1 Kirish

Hatto qadimgi antik davrdan ham dengiz va dengiz floti davlatning eng tez ko'tarilishiga hissa qo'shganligi ma'lum. Tashqi savdo davlatni boyitadi, tadqiqot va yangi shaxsni kashf etadi. Bu ikki asosiy savolni echadigan dengiz.

Dengiz flotining rivojlanishi dunyodagi deyarli barcha mamlakatlar madaniyatining rivojlanishiga ta'sir qiladi, umuman olganda aniq va gumanitar fanlar rivojiga xizmat qiladi, odamlar uchun turli sohalar va turli xil kasblarni ta'minlaydi. Navigatsiya nafaqat yangi fan emas, balki butunlay yangi dunyoqarashdir, bu hatto zamonaviy insonning butun tizimdan mustaqil, mustaqilligini his qilish imkonini beradi.

Ukraina dengiz davlati. Bizning zamonamizda bunday davlat yo'q edi, lekin o'sha vaqtning eng yaxshi kemalari allaqachon dengizni suzib yurgan. Bu mumkinmi? Shunday qilib, men ushbu bayonotni keltirmoqchiman.

2. Birinchi tarixiy ma'lumotdengizchimulk. Rivojlantiringqadim zamonlarda dengiz suvi yaxshi

Qadim zamonlarda dengizchilikni rivojlantirish uch bosqichga bo'linadi:

Birinchi davr- dengiz suvi tug'ilishidan suzish paydo bo'lishigacha. Daryolar va dengizlar hayotidagi ahamiyatini tushinishgan va toshdo'zlik va boshqa dengiz hayvonlarini olishlari mumkin bo'lgan Tosh asri odamlari oxir-oqibatda eng zamonaviy transport vositasini - zamonaviy daryo va dengiz kemalarining ajdodlarini yaratdi. Shu bilan birga, odamlar dastlabki ko'chmanchilarni - birinchi navbatda qutini, so'ngra esa kashf qildi. 5-4 ming yillar yaratilgach, dengiz suvi ustunligi katta qadam bo'ldi. Yelkanlar - 6 ming yildan ortiq vaqt davomida dengizchilarga yordam bergan va dengiz sayohati rivojlanishiga hal qiluvchi ta'sir ko'rsatadigan eng ajoyib kashfiyot.

Ikkinchi davr- bir xil dengiz havzasi bo'ylab suzishning birinchi qirg'oq uchishlariga qadar. Kema qurishni yaxshilash Finikechilarga qirg'oq sayohatiga moslashtirilgan kemalarni qurishga imkon berdi. Bronza davrida, dengiz suvi chegaralarini kengaytiradigan birinchi dengiz yuk kemalari yaratildi. Jasoratli Fenikellar O'rta er dengizi bo'ylab yurishadi, xitoylik navigatorlar yaqin orollarda yashaydi. Keyinchalik rivojlanish zamonaviy Ukrainaning hududida dengiz qa'rini qadrlaydi.

Uchinchi davr- Sharon safarlaridan dastlabki uzoq dengiz safarlari va ilmni dengiz suvi xizmatiga kelishi. Miloddan avvalgi birinchi ming yillikda birinchi uzoq dengiz safarlari amalga oshiriladi. 6 osh qoshiqda. BC uch yillik safarda Finikiyalik afrikalik qit'ani yaqindagina, Hamilxon karthaginiysi Iberian yarim orolini yaxlitladi va yunon Skilak Kiriandi bilan Hind okeanini suzib ketdi. 6 osh qoshiqda yunon olimlari va kashfiyotchilari tomonidan katta hissa qo'shgan. BC Shunday qilib, Miletdan Thales kemachilarga Ursa Minor yulduz turkumiga qanday borishni aytdi, Anaximander birinchi geografik xaritalarni yozdi - birinchi temir ankraj yaratildi, uning yordamida qirg'oqning har qanday joyida savdoga yo'l qo'yildi. Kema qurish texnologiyasi sezilarli darajada yaxshilandi.

2.1 Tug'ilgan  dengiz suvi

Yer yuzining 70 foizidan ortig'i okean va dengizlar, ko'llar va daryolar havzalarining cheksiz suv omborlari bilan qoplangan va shunga qaramay, tosh asrida odamlar suvga e'tiborni tortadigan hayot manbalaridan biri sifatida qarashgan.

Odamlar, dehqonchilik va ovchilik bilan bir qatorda, ochiq dengizda baliq ovlash bilan shug'ullanadi, buning uchun asosiy suzuvchi vositalar ishlatiladi: birinchi - konstruktsiyadan yorug'lik rishtalari, keyinchalik - hayvon terisini eng oddiy qayiqlari, keyinchalik butun yog'ochdan tayyorlangan qayiq va kanoeler. Jordina tomonidan, va keyin - oars kabi bir sal o'tirgan. Bu kema qurish va suv transportini rivojlantirishning boshlanishi edi.

Erta madaniyat davrida (eramizdan taxminan 6 ming - 4 ming yil) inson dengiz bo'shliqlarini kashf qilish istagi bor.

Birinchi kemalar yugurishar edi va faqat bitta yo'lovchi edi. Asta-sekin kemalarning hajmi oshdi, qayiq dizayni yaxshilandi, yugurish soni ortdi.

Yelkanning ochilishi bilan (mil. Avv. 5 ming - 4 ming yillar) suv bilan uzoqlashishga va suv omborlarini o'zlashtirishga erishildi. Birinchi reyslar qirg'oq yaqinida amalga oshirildi, keyin esa odamlar quyosh va yulduzlar yoki qushlarning parvozlari bilan harakat qilishni o'rgandilar.

Safarlar har doim yaxshi ob-havo sharoitlarida bo'lmagani uchun, dengizchilar kemaning eng yaxshi dizayni haqida o'ylashdi. Shunday qilib, bronza davrida (mil. Av. 3 ming - 1 ming yil) yelkan bilan jihozlangan qayiq kemalari paydo bo'ladi. Lekin uzoq vaqt davomida asosiy dvigatel yaltiroq edi: kema qanchalik katta bo'lsa, qanot qo'shinlari qancha ko'p.

2.2   Misr

Misrdagi madaniyatning jadal rivojlanishi turli xil texnologik vositalarni, jumladan kema qurishni yaxshilash bilan birga o'tdi.

O'rta er dengizi shaharlari bilan savdo qilish uchun Misrda miloddan avvalgi 3,5-2 ming yil ilgari kemalar bo'lganligi haqida dalillar mavjud.

Katta yuklarni tashish uchun misrliklar maxsus tekis quyi kemalar - barjalar yaratdilar. Uzunlamasına yog'och majmualardan qilingan qo'shimcha devor asboblari tufayli zarur bo'ylama quvvatga erishdi.

Misrliklar mahalliy daraxt turlari, shuningdek, qarag'aydan kemalar chiqarib tashladilar. Mil. Avv. 2,5 yil Misrliklar Sirreya uchun butun dengiz ekspeditsiyalarini jo'natishdi. Qizil dengiz porti sharqiy mamlakatlardan - Hindiston, Xitoy, Arabistondan turli xil kemalar sotib olgan.

Punt (Sharqiy Afrikaning) mamlakatiga ekspeditsiyalar yaxshi qurollangan va harbiy qismlar edi. Ushbu mamlakatdan oltin, tosh, idish va boshqalarni eksport qilmoqda.

3 osh qoshiqda Pharos orolidagi portga kiraverishda. BC tarixda ilk marotaba, dengiz chiroqlari yaratilgan, bu dunyoning ajoyibotlaridan biriga aylandi.

Qaroqchilardan himoya qilish uchun Misr firavonlari maxsus harbiy kemalarga ega edilar.

3 osh qoshiqda. BC Misrda qurilgan kema sorovesla (tessarokontera) bor edi. Kemada ikkita burun, ikkita tog'or, bir nechta qo'chqor bor edi. Kema uzunligi 280 metr bo'lib, chuqurligi 38 fut edi. Kemada 4 mingta opponent, 3 mingta ekipaj va 400 nafar xizmatchi bor edi. Omarlar qo'rg'oshin bilan to'ldirilgan, bu esa sersoychilar ishini osonlashtirdi.

2.3   Finikiya

Finikiya qadimgi xalqlari (zamonaviy Suriya qirg'og'i) dengiz sayohati tarixiga katta hissa qo'shgan deb aytish mubolag'a bo'lmaydi. Ko'hna Fenikeliler, ochiqdan-ochiq O'rta er dengizi mamlakatlari xalqlari orasida ochiq dengizga tushishdi; ular eng yaxshi navigator hisoblanardi. Fenikellarning kemalar yuklarini tashish uchun mo'ljallangan suzib yuradigan kemalari vatanlari chegaralaridan ancha uzoqqa cho'zilgan, ular yaxshi dengizchilik fazilatlari bilan ajralib turishgan va vaqtning eng yaxshi kemalari hisoblangan.

Taxminan 4 ming yil. Finikiya Misr va Messopotamiya bilan dengiz savdolarini amalga oshirdi. Unda umumiy mollardan tashqari, kemalar qurilishi uchun dengiz va mast o'tin eksport qilindi. Finikiyaliklar O'rta er dengizi orollari aholisi bilan yaxshi savdo paketlarini egallagan.

Mil. Av. 2 ming yil o'rtasida. Fenikellar O'rta Yer dengizi havzasida bir nechta koloniyalar qurdilar.

Afrika bo'ylab Misrning fir'avn Necho (taxminan miloddan avvalgi IV asr) buyurtmasi bo'yicha Qizil dengizda safar boshlandi va uch yil o'tib, Hindiston va Atlantika okeanlari bo'ylab yugurib, Fenikeliler Hercules ustunlariga (Gibraltar Boğazları) etib Misrga qaytdi.

2.4 Karfagen

Karfagen 9-8 asrda Fenikeliler tomonidan tashkil etilgan. BC Tunis ko'rfazining keng portida.

Carthaginians Afrikaning g'arbiy qirg'oqlaridan va G'arbiy Evropadan bir nechta harbiy mashg'ulot olib bordilar. 6 osh qoshiqgacha. BC Afrikaning Atlantika qirg'og'ida joylashgan Carthaginian qiroli Gannonning suzishi. Gannon floti 50 dan 60 gacha bo'lgan kemalardan iborat bo'lib, unda 30 mingga yaqin erkak va ayol bor edi. Filo Gvineya ko'rfaziga bordi, ammo ta'minotning etishmasligi tufayli u yo'lni to'xtatib, orqaga qaytishga majbur bo'ldi. Ushbu safar natijasida Afrika koloniyalari tashkil etildi.

Karfagen miloddan avvalgi 146 yilgacha mavjud bo'lib, uzoq vaqtlardagi Panik urushlari natijasida Rim askarlari tomonidan vayron qilingan.

3. Baliqchilikni boshlash  zamonaviy Ukraina hududida

3.1   Qadimgi  Gretsiya

Qulay shart-sharoitlar kema qurish va dengiz bo'yida tez rivojlanishga olib keldi. 6 osh qoshiqgacha. BC G'arbiy O'rta er dengizi bo'ylab va sharqda Qora qirg'oqlarida koloniyalarni yaratgan yunonlar allaqachon katta dengiz floti bor edi.

Yunon faylasufi Stratonning shahodatiga ko'ra, Qoradengiz Vizantiya shahriga, ya'ni Bosphorus yo'q edi. Ammo Qoradengizga oqib tushgan daryolar suvdan o'tib, Marmara dengizi va Çanakkale dengiziga oqib tushdi. Mil. Av. 4 minggacha Marmara dengizi ko'l edi.

Avvaliga Qoradengiz qirg'oqqa suzish va qirg'in qilish uchun kirish imkoni bo'lmagandi va qishki bo'ronlar va mahalliy qabilalarning yirtqichligi sababli Aksinskiy "noma'qul" deb nomlanardi. Lekin hali 6 osh qoshiqda. BC Shimoliy pontik yunon yerleşimcilerini joylashtirishni boshlaydi. Ular bu yerda, Oikumenning chekkasida, siyosat, shaharlar davlatlari qurdilar. Qoradengiz sohilidagi shaharlar yaratilgach, u Pont Eukinskiyni "mehmondo'st dengiz" deb ataydilar, ba'zan "Pontius skifiy" yoki oddiygina Pont deb ataladi.

Er qa'rigi, odatda, daryolar dengizga, yoki yillik deltalar yaqinidagi dengiz orollariga oqib o'tadigan joylarda paydo bo'ldi.

Tir shahri, VI asrda Kichik Osiyodagi Milet shahri aholisi tomonidan tashkil etilgan. BC (hozirgi Bilgorod-Dnistrovskiy).

Olbiya shahri Buxoro-Dnestri Estuariyasining o'ng qirg'og'ida joylashgan (Parutino qishlog'i) va 6-asrning birinchi yarmida Milesiyaliklar tomonidan tashkil etilgan. BC

Qrim yarim orolining janubi-g'arbiy qismida (Sevastopol) yunon empirikligiga asosan joylashgan Chersonesos shahri 422-421-yilda tashkil etilgan. BC Heraclea shahrining Pontik shahri aholisi.

Feodosiya shahri 6 asrda tashkil etilgan. BC militsionerlar

Panticapaeum (Kerch) 6 osh qoshiqda joylashgan. Mil. Milesians tomonidan. Ayniqsa, Jimmy Bosporus (Kerch bogozi) tomonidan juda keng rivojlangan savdo yo'nalishlarining markazi bo'lgan.

Qora dengiz bandargohlarini tark etgan yunon savdogar kemalari Tuna bo'ylab ko'tarilib, Shimoliy Yevropaga kirib keldi. Qadimgi Osiyo yo'llari bo'ylab qarshi yo'nalishda harakatlanadigan yunonlar Hind okeanigacha Indus vodiysiga, yoki Qizil dengiz orqali dengiz orqali yetib kelishgan.

O'sha paytlarda yunonlarning kema qurish texnologiyalari eng yaxshisi edi. Kemalar keel, soxta, jarohatlangan, ramkalar edi. Kema qurilishida kamroq materiallar ishlatilgan: eman, akaktsiya, qarag'ay, olcha.

Suv sathining ostidagi korpus topilgan yoki qo'rg'oshinli plitalar bilan qoplangan. Butun qorovul bo'yalgan va yog 'bilan surilib, balast uchun qum ishlatilgan. To'lqinlarga qarshi himoya qilish uchun, kostryulkalar tagliklari bor edi. Savdogar va harbiy kemalar o'rtasidagi farq sezilarli bo'ldi: savdo kemalari uzunligi 20-25 metr, kengligi 7-8 metr, tashish quvvati 800-1000 tonnani tashkil etdi. Tijoriy kemalar og'irroq va kengroq edi. Avvallari ular chavandoz edi, lekin ularning kattaligi va tashish hajmi ortib borishi sababli ular suzib keta boshladilar. Asosiy ustun to'rtburchak suzib yurib, ba'zan yordamchi suzib yurar edi. Old ustun burun tomon yiqilib, borspritning oldingi a'zosi edi. Bu kema shamollarga suzib ketishga imkon berdi.

Savdo kemalarining bir nechta turlari bor edi: Lemb, Kelet, Kerkur va (Tirik otlarni tashish uchun mo'ljallangan Hippos).

Gemiler, Menera, Diera, Trier, Tetrer va shunga o'xshash qatorlardan keyin ismga ega edi. Filolarning asosiy qismi uch tomonlama edi. Ular ikkala tomondan uch qatorli yaltiroq kemalar edi, ular ham suzib yurar edi. Uzunligi 38m, kengligi 6m, 90 tonnalik joy, 200 kishigacha bo'lgan ekipaj.

Qizig'i shundaki, kema qurishning bunday mukammal texnologiyasi va kema xizmatining o'rtacha uzunligi (va bu 40-50 va ba'zan 80 yil) bo'lishiga qaramasdan, hech kim Trier bizning vaqtimizga tegmagan. Olimlar eski Yunonlar bizdan meros qilib olingan rasm va yozuvlar tufayli faqat texnik ma'lumotlarini taxminiy ravishda aniqlashlari mumkin.

3.2 Dsevny  Rim

Yunon dengiz suvining pasayishi doimiy urushlar bilan bog'liq. 2 osh qoshiqda. BC Rimliklarga Yunonistonni egallab olishdi va 4-stadgacha. AD Xatarlar davri - bu uzoq tarixdir.

Yangi davr boshlanganda, rimliklar mashhur kosmik kemalar - Misrliklar, Minomatlar, Fenikeliler, Yunonlar va Karthaginilarning yutuqlaridan foydalanib kema qurish va navigatsiyaga katta muvaffaqiyat qozonishgan.

Karfagen ustidan g'alaba qozonganidan so'ng rimliklar dushmanlari bilan savdo qilgan mamlakatlarga qiziqish bildirishdi. Yunoniyalik tarixchi Polybius, rimliklar topshirig'iga binoan, Afrikaning shimoli-g'arbiy qirg'oqlari bo'ylab tadqiq qilishni boshladi.

Avvaliga Rimning dengiz savdosi bir tomonlama edi: eksport juda oz edi, ko'proq tovar import qilindi. Biroq, keyingi savdo global xarakterga ega bo'ldi. Rim Hindiston, Indochina, Xitoy, Sumatra bilan aloqalar o'rnatgan. Rim davrida shimoliy Qoradengiz hududida rivojlangan flot mavjud edi. Qadimgi flotning o'ziga xos xususiyatlaridan biri boshqa kemalarga qilingan hujumning to'satdanligi edi. Ko'p antiqa kemalar Qoradengiz tubida yotadi.

Qoradengizda Rim Filosu Tyri va Chersonesosda joylashgan. Rim qo'shinlari 3-chi o'rtalarigacha oromgohda edilar. AD, keyinchalik ular imperiyaning sharqiy chegaralarida muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchraganligi sababli olib tashlangan.

Rim davrining oxirida savdo tobora ko'proq qaroqchilikka duchor bo'la boshladi. Mashhur rim qo'mondoni Pompey O'rtaer dengizi qirg'inlariga qarshi kurashga rahbarlik qildi. U 2 mingga yaqin kemani egallab oldi, 20 mingta garovgirlar qo'lga olindi, ularning rahbarlari qatl etildi va qolganlari qullikka sotildi.

Rimdagi harbiy kemalar, Yunonistonda bo'lgani singari, birma, trireme, quadrireme, quinquirame va shunga o'xshashlar qatoriga qarab bir ismga ega edi. Filolarning asosiy qismi quinquierumdan iborat edi. Patrul kuzatuvchilar uchun garovgirlar bilan kurashda tezkor tezkor kemalar bir qator o'qlar va bir mast liburni bilan yaratilgan.

Rimliklar savdogarlar kemalari qarag'aydan (qarag'ayzorlardan) qurilgan, yog'och tikanlarga yopishtirilgan, qafasning suv osti qismlari jun bilan qoplangan va keyinchalik mis tirnoqlari ustidagi korpuslar bilan qoplangan yoki pastki qatlam bilan qoplangan. Ba'zan idishlarda bir nechta rulon, biroq bir nechtasi bor edi, ustunning yuqori qismida boshqa qush yoki goz boshi bilan bezatilgan edi. Pastki qismida allaqachon ibtidoiy yuk o'qlari bo'lgan. Datchiklar soni 1dan 3 gacha bo'lgan oraliqda edi. Yelkanlar mato, qamish yoki hatto charmdan tayyorlangan.

Rim buyuk savdogar floti bor edi. O'rtacha savdo kemasi 340 tonna yukni tashkil qildi. Donni tashish uchun mo'ljallangan kemalar 1200 tonnaga etdi.

Ayni paytda suvni dengizga jalb qilishga yordam beradigan ilm-fan rivojlangan. Astronomiya va matematikaning rivojlanishi - suv xili ixtirosi - clepsydri, Pisagoralarning Yerning global formati haqidagi g'oyasi - bularning barchasi dunyo aholisining chegara chegaralarini aniq-ravshan ravishda kengaytirdi. Dunyoning birligi nazariyasi Arximed bir nechta kashfiyotlar yaratdi va faylasuf Kratet dunyodagi birinchi Yer globusini yaratdi. Rivojlangan kenglik va uzunlik kengaytmasi ishlab chiqildi. O'rta er dengizi savdogarlar Sharqiy xitoy savdogarlar bilan, g'arbda ispan, janubdagi nubilar va shimolda inglizlar bilan munosabatlarni davom ettirdilar. Rimliklarga dengiz qonunini to'ldirib, kengaytirdi.

Xulosa

Shunday qilib, Ukrainaning fuqaroligidan ancha oldin Ukraina janubiy sohilida rivojlangan dengiz transporti va harbiy kemalar, shuningdek, boshqa davlatlarning koloniyalari yoki shaharlarining davlatlari borligini ko'ramiz. Bu bizning madaniyatimiz va tashqi siyosatimizni yanada rivojlantirish uchun katta qadamdir, chunki ko'pchilik bizning erimiz haqida bilar edi.

Albatta, bular nafaqat ijobiy, balki salbiy oqibatlarga olib keladi, chunki ba'zi mamlakatlarda boylik nafaqat moddiy, balki ma'naviy jihatdan ham bizning davrimizda dahshatli tuyg'ularga olib keladi - hasad. Va hasad qilish har doim urush va kurashga olib keladi. Lekin bular allaqachon boshqa davrlar va Ukraina tarixining boshqa sahifalari.

Shu kabi hujjatlar

    Asosiy madaniyat markazlarining kelib chiqishi. Krit-Miken, qadimgi Yunonistonning iqtisodiy tarixining gomus, arxeik va klassik davri. Qadimgi Rimni rivojlantirish davrlari. Italiya qishloqlarining iqtisodiy tuzilishi. Italiya bo'ylab ichki savdo.

    mavhumlik, 02.22.2016 qo'shildi

    Qadimgi Yunoniston va uning madaniyati jahon tarixida alohida o'rin tutadi. Qadimiy Gretsiyaning tarixi. Olbiya: yunon davrining bir shahri. Qadimgi Gretsiya va Rim madaniyati tarixi. Qadimgi dunyo san'ati. Qadimiy Gretsiyaning huquqi.

    mavhumlik, 12/03/2002 qo'shildi

    Qadimgi Yunoniston va qadimgi Rimning siyosiy fikrini shakllantirish va rivojlantirish bosqichlari. Siyosatshunoslikning kelib chiqishi, haqiqiy hokimiyat tushunchasining paydo bo'lishi. Inson erkinligi, adolat, fuqarolik, qadimiy fikrlovchilarning mas'uliyatining rivojlanishi.

    18/18/2011 da qo'shilgan

    VIII-VI asrlarda Yunonistonning tarixiy rivojlanishining asosiy yo'nalishi. BC Qadimgi Gretsiyaning madaniyatining yuksakligi. Yunon sivilizatsiyasining madaniy merosi, Evropaning barcha xalqlariga ta'siri, adabiyoti, falsafasi, diniy fikrlash, siyosiy ta'lim.

    abstrakt 17.06.2010 da qo'shilgan

    Qadimgi Finikiyaning joylashuvi. Byblos Siti yog'och savdosi markazi sifatida. Alfavit, Finikiya davlat tizimi. Karfagenning qiymati va qurilmasi. Falastinning iqlimi va tabiiy sharoitlari tavsifi. Quddusning kelib chiqishi va qadimgi tarixi.

    18/18/2010 da qo'shilgan

    Rimni respublikaga aylantirish Rim jamiyatining mafkuraviy hayotiga ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Yunon madaniyatining ta'siri ta'limning jamiyatning yuqori qatlamlariga tarqalishiga va madaniyatning o'sishiga yordam berdi. Qadimgi Rimning to'g'ri, retorik va she'riyati.

    mavhum, 14.05.2008 da qo'shilgan

    Qadimiylik - madaniyatning bir turi, antik tushunchasi. Yevropa klassikasining rivojlanishiga antik ta'sir. Qadimgi yunon madaniyatining asosiy xususiyatlari. Qadimgi Rimning an'anaviy madaniyati. Qadimgi Rim davlatining davlatchilik va siyosiy hayoti.

    maqola 09.14.14 da qo'shilgan

    Qadimiy Gretsiyani shaharni rejalashtirish tizimi, shaharlarni obodonlashtirish. Qadimgi Yunonistonning shaharsozlik san'ati yodgorligi Milet shahri. Hellenistik vaqtning chorak qismi. Uy o'rta sinf va odamlar kambag'aldir. Qadimgi Yunoniston madaniyatining xususiyatlari.

    mavhumlik, 04/10/2014 qo'shildi

    Grek davlatlarida iqtisodiyotning asosiy tarmoqlari qo'l san'ati ishlab chiqarishidir. Qadimgi yunon qulligining xususiyatlari. Qadimgi Rimda qishloq xo'jaligi, hunarmandchilik va savdoni rivojlantirish. Inqirozning sabablari va qul Rim imperiyasining qulashi.

    mavhumlik, 10/17/2013

    Etrotsanlar va qadimgi yunonlar madaniyatining qadimgi rim sivilizatsiyasining shakllanishiga ta'siri. Qadimgi Rim tarixining davriyligi. Rim mifologiyasi. Imperiyaning rasmiy ibodatini tashkil etish. Masihiylikning tarqalishi. Qadimgi Rimning arxitekturasi.