Baroque concept. Baroque in architecture
Study history
One of the first monographs devoted to the baroque was Wölflin's book "Renaissance and Baroque" (German: Renaissance und Barock, 1888). Baroque occupied the period between Renaissance and Classicism, and in its later version it was called Rococo. Wölflin calls picturesque and passionate characteristics of the Baroque. Dvořák distinguished Mannerism from the early Baroque. Subsequently, Panofsky outlined the tendency to see in the baroque not an antithesis, but a continuation of the Renaissance.
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History
One of the controversial theories suggests the origin of all these European words from Latin bis-roca, twisted stone. Another theory - from Latin verruca, a steep high place, a defect in a gem.
In different contexts, the word baroque could mean "pretentiousness", "unnatural", "insincerity", "elite", "deformed", "exaggerated emotionality". All these shades of the word baroque in most cases were not perceived as negative.
Finally, another theory suggests that this word in all the languages mentioned is parodic from the point of view of linguistics, and its word formation can be explained by its meaning: unusual, unnatural, ambiguous and deceptive.
The ambiguity of the Baroque style is due to its origin. According to some researchers, it was borrowed from the architecture of the Seljuk Turks.
Baroque features
Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, affectation, striving for grandeur and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (city and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards the autonomy of certain genres (Concerto Grosso, Sonata, Suite in instrumental music). The worldview foundations of the style were formed as a result of the shock, which the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus became for the 16th century. The concept of the world as a rational and permanent unity, which was established in antiquity, changed, as well as the Renaissance concept of man as a rational being. In the words of Pascal, a person began to realize himself "as something in between everything and nothing", "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is unable to understand either their beginning or their end."
Baroque era
The Baroque era gives rise to a huge amount of time for urban residents from the upper and middle class for the sake of entertainment: instead of pilgrimages - a promenade (walks in the park); instead of knightly tournaments - "carousels" (horseback riding) and card games; instead of mysteries - theater and masquerade ball. You can also add the appearance of a swing and "fiery fun" (fireworks). In the interiors, the place of icons was taken by portraits and landscapes, and the music from the spiritual turned into a pleasant play of sound.
The Baroque era rejects tradition and authority as superstition and prejudice. All that is "clearly and distinctly" thought or has a mathematical expression is true, declares the philosopher Descartes. Therefore, the baroque is still the age of Reason and Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that the word "baroque" is sometimes taken to denote one of the types of inferences in medieval logic - to baroco... The first European park appears in the Palace of Versailles, where the idea of a forest is expressed extremely mathematically: linden alleys and canals seem to be drawn along a ruler, and trees are trimmed in the manner of stereometric figures. In the armies of the Baroque era, which received uniforms for the first time, much attention is paid to "drill" - the geometric correctness of the formations on the parade ground.
Baroque man
Baroque man rejects naturalness, which is identified with savagery and ignorance. (In the era of romanticism, naturalness will be viewed from a different angle and will become one of the main virtues.) A Baroque woman values the pallor of her skin, she wears a pretentious hairstyle, a corset and an artificially extended skirt on a whalebone frame. She's wearing heels.
And the ideal man in the Baroque era is the gentleman - from the English. gentle: "soft", "gentle", "calm". He prefers to shave his mustache and beard, wear perfume and powdered wigs. What is the use of force if now they kill by pulling the trigger of a musket? In the Baroque era, naturalness is synonymous with brutality, savagery, vulgarity and extravagance. For the philosopher Hobbes, the state of nature is a state characterized by anarchy and war of all against all.
Baroque is characterized by the idea of ennobling nature on the basis of reason. The need for something (“need”) should not be tolerated, but “it is good to offer in pleasant and courteous words” (Honest Mirror of Youth, 1717). According to the philosopher Spinoza, drives are no longer the content of sin, but "the very essence of man." Therefore, the appetite is shaped in an exquisite dining etiquette (it was in the Baroque era that forks and napkins appeared); love interest - in polite flirting, quarrels - in a refined duel.
The Baroque is characterized by the idea of a sleeping god - deism. God is conceived not as a Savior, but as a Great Architect who created the world just like a watchmaker creates a mechanism. Hence such a characteristic of the baroque worldview as mechanism. The law of conservation of energy, the absoluteness of space and time are guaranteed by the word of God. However, having created the world, God rested from his labors and does not interfere in the affairs of the Universe in any way. It is useless to pray to such a God - you can only learn from Him. Therefore, the true keepers of the Enlightenment are not prophets and priests, but natural scientists. Isaac Newton discovers the law of universal gravitation and writes the fundamental work "Mathematical principles of natural philosophy" (), and Carl von Linnaeus systematizes biology ("The system of nature",). Academies of Sciences and scientific societies are being established throughout European capitals.
The diversity of perception raises the level of consciousness - something like the philosopher Leibniz says. Galileo for the first time directs a telescope to the stars and proves the rotation of the Earth around the Sun (), and Leeuwenhoek under a microscope discovers tiny living organisms (). Huge sailboats ply the vastness of the world's oceans, erasing white spots on the geographical maps of the world. Travelers and adventurers became the literary symbols of the era: Robinson Crusoe, the ship's doctor Gulliver and Baron Munchausen.
“In the Baroque era, a fundamentally new, different from the medieval, allegorical thinking took place. A viewer who can understand the language of the logo has formed. The allegory has become the norm of artistic vocabulary in all types of plastic and spectacular arts, including such synthetic forms as festivities. "
Baroque painting
The Baroque style in painting is characterized by dynamism of compositions, "flatness" and splendor of forms, aristocratic and uncommon plots. The most characteristic features of the Baroque are striking flamboyance and dynamism; a vivid example is the work of Rubens and Caravaggio.
Michelangelo Merisi (1571-1610), who was nicknamed Caravaggio by his birthplace near Milan, is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings, written on religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author's modern life, creating a contrast between the times of late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in the twilight, from which rays of light capture the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their specificity. Followers and imitators of Caravaggio, who at first were called caravaggians, and the movement itself caravaggism, such as Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) or Guido Reni (1575-1642), adopted the riot of feelings and characteristic manner of Caravaggio, as well as his naturalism in depicting people and events.
Architecture
In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the facade of the Roman Church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces in the new style date from around 1620. Bernini is also an architect. He owns the decoration of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. Significant contributions were made by Carlo Fontana, Carlo Rainaldi, Guarino Guarini, Baldassare Longena, Luigi Vanvitelli, Pietro da Cortona. In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a new style of late Baroque appeared - sicilian baroque... Light acts as a fundamentally important element of the baroque space, entering the churches through the naves.
The Cornaro Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (-1652) is considered the quintessential Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture.
The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, the Commonwealth. Spanish Baroque, or in local Churrigueres (in honor of the architect Churriguera), also spread in Latin America. Its most popular monument is the Cathedral of St. James, which is also one of the most revered by believers in Spain. In Latin America, Baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is the most elaborate version of it, and they call it ultra-baroque.
With regard to the architecture of France in the XVII century. sometimes the term "baroque classicism" is used. The Palace of Versailles along with the regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris, and other works are ranked as such a classicist-baroque style. They do have some of the features of classicism. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is the regular style in gardening art, an example of which is the Versailles Park.
In Germany, an outstanding Baroque monument is the New Palace in Sanssouci (authors - I.G.Buring (German)Russian, H. L. Munter) and the Summer Palace in the same place (G. V. von Knobelsdorf).
Baroque in sculpture
Sculpture is an integral part of the Baroque style. The greatest sculptor and recognized architect of the 17th century was the Italian Lorenzo Bernini (-). Among his most famous sculptures are the mythological scenes of the abduction of Proserpine by the god of the underworld Pluto and the miraculous transformation into a tree of the nymph Daphne, persecuted by the god of light Apollo, as well as the altar group "Ecstasy of St. Teresa" in one of the Roman churches. The last of them, with its clouds carved out of marble and the robes of the characters as if fluttering in the wind, with theatrically exaggerated feelings, very accurately expresses the aspirations of the sculptors of this era.
In Spain, in the era of the Baroque style, wooden sculptures prevailed; for greater believability, they were made with glass eyes and even a crystal tear, real clothes were often worn on the statue. The leading master was Pedro de Mena, who worked in Granada and Malaga.
Baroque in literature
Writers and poets in the Baroque era perceived the real world as an illusion and a dream. Realistic descriptions were often combined with their allegorical depictions. Symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, graphic images (lines of poems form a drawing), saturation with rhetorical figures, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, oxymorons are widely used. There is a burlesque-satirical attitude towards reality. Baroque literature is characterized by a striving for diversity, for the summation of knowledge about the world, inclusiveness, encyclopedism, which sometimes turns into chaos and collecting curiosities, a striving for the study of being in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity). The baroque ethics is marked by a craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of impermanence and impermanence, dream-life (F. de Quevedo, P. Calderon). The famous play by Calderon "Life is a dream". Such genres as the gallant-heroic novel (J. de Scudery, M. de Scudery), the real-life and satirical novel (Fueretier, C. Sorel, P. Scarron) also developed. Within the framework of the Baroque style, its varieties, directions are born: Marinism (Italy), Gongorism (Cultéranism) and Conceptism (Spain), eufuism and the metaphysical school (England), precision literature (France), macaronism, that is, mixed Polish-Latin versification (Poland ).
The actions of the novels are often transferred to the fictional world of antiquity, to Greece, court gentlemen and ladies are portrayed as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which is called the pastoral (Honoré d'Urfe, "Astrea"). Pretentiousness and the use of complex metaphors flourish in poetry. Common forms are sonnet, rondo, conchetti (a small poem expressing some witty thought), madrigals.
In the West, in the field of the novel, an outstanding representative is G. Grimmelshausen (the novel "Simplicissimus"), in the field of drama - P. Calderon (Spain). V. Vuatur (France), D. Marino (Italy), Don Luis de Gongora y Argote (Spain), D. Donne (England) became famous in poetry. "Precision literature" flourished in France during this period. It was cultivated then, mainly in the salon of Madame de Rambouillet, one of the aristocratic salons of Paris, the most fashionable and famous. In Spain, the baroque trend in literature was called "gongorism" after the name of the most prominent representative (see above).
The baroque in Polish literature is represented by the poetry of the heroic and epic direction of Zbigniew Morsztyn, Vaclav Potocki, Vespasian Kochowski (the theme of whose poetry is largely due to the eventful military biography of all three), the courtier (the so-called macaroni style, popular at the end of the 17th century) Jan, Andrzej Morsztyn philosopher Stanislav Heraclius Lubomirsky; in prose - mainly memoirs (the most significant work - "Memoirs" by Jan Chrysostom Pasek).
In Russia, the Baroque literature includes S. Polotsky, F. Prokopovich.
In German literature, the traditions of the Baroque style are still supported by members of the literary community "Blumenorden". They gather in the summer for literary festivals in the Irrhein grove near Nuremberg. The society was founded in 1646 by Georg Philipp Harsdörffer with the aim of restoring and maintaining the German language, which was badly damaged during the Thirty Years' War.
Theoretically, the poetics of the baroque was developed in the treatises "Wit, or the art of a sophisticated mind" by Baltasar Gracian (1648) and "Aristotle's Spyglass" by Emanuele Tesauro (1655).
Baroque music
Baroque music appeared at the end of the Renaissance and predated the music of the Classicist era. Representatives - Vivaldi, Bach, Handel. The leading position in the genres of cantata, oratorio, opera. Characteristic is the opposition of the choir and soloists, voices and instruments, a combination of large-scale forms, a tendency towards the synthesis of art, with a simultaneous tendency to isolate music from the word (the emergence of instrumental genres).
Baroque fashion
At first, when he was still a child (he was crowned at the age of 5), short jackets, called brasier richly decorated with lace. Then pants came into vogue, rengraves skirt-like, wide, also richly decorated with laces that lasted a long time. Later appeared justocore(from French it can be translated: "exactly on the body"). This is a type of caftan, knee-length, in this era it was worn buttoned, a belt was worn over it. They wore under the caftan
Baroque Baroque
(Italian barocco, lit. - bizarre, strange), one of the dominant styles in European architecture and art of the late 16th - mid-18th centuries. The baroque was established in the era of intensive formation of nations and national states (mainly absolute monarchies) and became most widespread in countries where feudal-Catholic reaction played an especially active role. Closely associated with aristocratic circles and the church, baroque art was intended to glorify and promote their power. At the same time, it is unreasonable to limit the baroque to the framework of the counter-reformation and feudal reaction. The art of the Baroque indirectly reflected both the anti-feudal protest and the national liberation movements of the peoples against the monarchical tyranny, which sometimes brought into it a stream of democratic rebellious aspirations. The baroque embodied new ideas about the unity, boundlessness and diversity of the world, about its dramatic complexity and eternal variability, interest in the real environment, in the natural elements surrounding man. Baroque replaced the humanistic artistic culture of the Renaissance and the sophisticated subjectivism of Mannerist art. Rejecting the notions inherent in the classical Renaissance culture of harmony and strict regularity of being, of the unlimited possibilities of man, his will and reason, the baroque aesthetics was built on the collision of man and the world, ideal and sensual principles, reason and the power of irrational forces. A person in the art of the Baroque appears as a multifaceted personality, with a complex inner world, involved in the circulation and conflicts of the environment.
Baroque art is characterized by grandeur, splendor and dynamics, pathetic elation, intensity of feelings, addiction to spectacular spectacles, combining the illusory and the real, strong contrasts of scales and rhythms, materials and textures, light and shadow.
The synthesis of arts in the Baroque, which has an all-embracing nature and affects almost all strata of society (from the state and aristocracy to the urban lower classes and partly the peasantry), is characterized by a solemn, monumental and decorative unity that amazes the imagination with its scope. The urban ensemble, street, square, park, manor began to be understood as an organized artistic whole developing in space, unfolding in various ways in front of the viewer. The palaces and churches of the Baroque, thanks to the luxurious, whimsical plasticity of the facades, the restless play of light and shade, complex curvilinear plans and outlines, acquired picturesque and dynamism and, as it were, merged into the surrounding space. The ceremonial interiors of Baroque buildings were decorated with multicolored sculptures, moldings, carvings; mirrors and paintings illusoryly expanded the space, and the painting of the plafonds created the illusion of open vaults.
In the visual arts of the Baroque, virtuoso decorative compositions of a religious, mythological or allegorical character, ceremonial portraits, emphasizing the privileged social position of a person, prevail. The idealization of images is combined in them with violent dynamics, unexpected compositional and optical effects, reality with fantasy, religious affectation with an emphasized sensuality, and often with acute naturalness and materiality of forms, bordering on illusion. In baroque works of art, sometimes real objects and materials are included (statues with real hair and teeth, chapels made of bones, etc.). In painting, the emotional, rhythmic and coloristic unity of the whole, often unconstrained freedom of stroke, acquire great importance, in sculpture - the pictorial fluidity of form, a sense of the changeability of the formation of an image, a wealth of aspects and impressions. In Italy - the homeland of the Baroque - some of its preconditions and techniques manifested themselves in the 16th century. in the easel and decorative painting of Correggio, the work of Caravaggio imbued with democratic rebelliousness, the buildings of G. Vignola (a type of early Baroque church), the sculpture of Giambologna. The Baroque style found its most complete and vivid embodiment in the works of the architect and sculptor L. Bernini, the architect F. Borromini, the painter Pietro da Cortona, full of religious and sensual affectation. Later, the Italian Baroque evolved to the fantastic buildings of G. Guarini, the bravura of the paintings of S. Rosa and A. Magnasco, and the dizzying lightness of the paintings by G. B. Tiepolo. In Flanders, the attitude born of the Dutch bourgeois revolution of 1566-1602 introduced powerful life-affirming realistic and sometimes popular principles into baroque art (paintings by P.P. Rubens, A. van Dyck, J. Jordaens). In Spain in the 17th century. some baroque features were evident in the ascetic architecture of the school of JB de Herrera, in the realistic painting of J. de Ribera and F. Zurbarán, and in the sculpture of J. Montanes. In the XVIII century. In the buildings of the circle of JB de Churriguera, the baroque forms reached extraordinary complexity and decorative sophistication (even more exaggerated in the "ultra-baroque" countries of Latin America). The Baroque style received a peculiar interpretation in Austria, where it was combined with Rococo tendencies (architects J.B. Fischer von Erlach and I.L. Hildebrandt, painter F.A.Maulberch), and the absolutist states of Germany (architects and sculptors B. A. Schluter, M. D. Pöppelman, the Azam brothers, the Dientzenhofer family of architects who also worked in the Czech Republic), in Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, Western Ukraine, Lithuania. In France, where the leading style in the 17th century. became classicism, baroque remained a side stream until the middle of the century, but with the complete triumph of absolutism, both directions merged into a single pompous so-called grand style (decoration of the halls of Versailles, painting by Charles Lebrun). The concept of "baroque" sometimes inappropriately applies to the entire artistic culture of the 17th century, including phenomena that are far from baroque in content and style (for example, Naryshkin baroque, or "Moscow baroque", in Russian architecture of the late 17th century, cm. Naryshkin style). In many European countries in the 17th century. bright national realistic schools were formed, based both on the techniques of caravaggism and on the local artistic traditions of realism. They were most vividly expressed in the uniquely original work of great masters (D. Velasquez in Spain, F. Hals, J. Vermeer Delft, Rembrandt in Holland, etc.), fundamentally different, and sometimes deliberately opposed to the artistic concepts of the Baroque.
In Russia, the development of baroque art, reflecting the growth and strengthening of the noble absolute monarchy, falls on the first half of the 18th century. The Baroque style in Russia was free from exaltation and mysticism (characteristic of the art of Catholic countries) and had a number of national characteristics. Russian baroque architecture, which reached a majestic proportions in the city and estate ensembles of St. Petersburg, Peterhof ( cm. Petrodvorets), Tsarskoe Selo ( cm. Pushkin) and others, is distinguished by the solemn clarity and integrity of the composition of buildings and architectural complexes (architects M.G. Zemtsov, V.V.Rastrelli, D.V. Ukhtomsky, S.I. Chevakinsky); the fine arts turned to secular, social themes, the portrait was developed (sculpture by B. K. Rastrelli and others).
The Baroque era is marked by the ubiquitous rise of monumental art and decorative and applied art, closely related to architecture. In the first half of the 18th century. Baroque evolves to the graceful lightness of the Rococo style, coexists and intertwines with it, and since the 1770s. everywhere superseded by classicism.
P.P. Rubens. "Adoration of the Magi". 1624. Royal Museum of Fine Arts. Antwerp.
Literature: G. Wölflin, Renaissance and Baroque, trans. from it., St. Petersburg, 1913; him, Basic concepts of art history, trans. from it., M., 1930; IRI, t. 5, M., 1960; VII, t. 4, M., 1963; Russian art of baroque, M., 1977; Weisbach W., Die Kunst des Barock in Italien, Frankreich, Deutschland und Spanien, (2 Aufl.), B., 1929; Windfuhr M., Die Barocke Bildlichkeit und ihre Kritiker, Stuttg., (1966); Bialostocki J., Barock-Stil, Epoche, Haltung, Dresden, 1966; Held J. S., Posner D., 17th and 18th century art; baroque painting, sculpture, architecture, N. Y., 1971; Heimbürger M., Architettura, scultura e arti minori nei barocco italiano, Firenze, 1977; Martin J. R., Baroque, N. Y. - (a. O.), 1977; Hansmann W., Baukunst des Barock, Köln, 1978.
Source: "Popular Art Encyclopedia." Ed. V.M. Polevoy; Moscow: Publishing House "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1986.)
baroque(from Italian. barocco - bizarre, strange), an artistic style that occupied a leading position in European art from the end. 16 to mid. 18th century Born in Italy. The term was introduced into the con. 19th century Swiss art critics J. Burckhardt and G. Wölfin. The style embraced all types of creativity: literature, music, theater, but it manifested itself especially clearly in architecture, fine and decorative arts. The Renaissance feeling of a clear harmony of the universe was replaced by a dramatic understanding of the conflict nature of being, endless diversity, the immensity and constant variability of the surrounding world, the power of powerful natural elements over man. The expressiveness of baroque works is often built on contrasts, dramatic collisions between the sublime and the low, the majestic and the insignificant, the beautiful and the ugly, the illusory and the real, light and darkness. A penchant for writing complex and verbose allegory side by side with extreme naturalism. Baroque works of art were distinguished by redundancy of forms, passion and intensity of images. As never before, there was a strong feeling of the "theater of life": fireworks, masquerades, a passion for dressing up, reincarnation, all kinds of "tricks" brought a playful beginning to a person's life, an unprecedented spectacle and bright festivity.
Masters of the Baroque era sought to synthesize various types of arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), to create an ensemble, which often included elements of wildlife transformed by the artist's imagination: water, vegetation, wild stones, thoughtful effects of natural and artificial lighting, which caused a flourishing landscape architecture... The baroque buildings retained the structure of the architectural order, but instead of the clear orderliness, calmness and regularity characteristic of the classics, the forms became fluid, mobile, acquired complex, curvilinear outlines. Straight lines cornices“Torn apart”; the walls were crushed together in bundles columns and abundant sculptural decorations. Buildings and squares actively interacted with the surrounding space (D.L. Bernini... The ensemble of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, 1657-63; the church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale in Rome, 1653-58; F. Borromini. Church of San Carlo alle Cuatro Fontane in Rome, 1634-67; G. Guarino. Church of San Lorenzo in Turin, 1668–87).
Baroque sculpture is characterized by a special tactility, materiality in the interpretation of forms, virtuoso, reaching illusory, demonstration of the texture of the depicted objects, the use of various materials (bronze, gilding, multi-colored marbles), contrasts of light and shadow, violent emotions and movements, pathetic gestures and facial expressions ( D.L.Bernini, brothers K. D. and E. K. Azam).
Baroque painting is characterized by monumentality and spectacular decorativeness, the neighborhood of the ideally sublime (brothers Carrachi, G. Reni, Guercino) and mundane ( Caravaggio). Baroque principles were most fully manifested in magnificent ceremonial portraits (A. Van Dyck, G. Rigo); in luxurious still lifes that showed the abundant gifts of nature (F. Snyders); in allegorical compositions, where the figures of rulers and nobles stood side by side with images of ancient gods who personified the virtues of the portrayed (P.P. Rubens). The plafond (ceiling) painting experienced a bright flourishing (frescoes of the Church of Sant'Ignazio in Rome by A. del Pozzo, 1685-99; the plafond of the Palazzo Barberini in Rome by P. da Cortona, 1633-39; murals of the Palazzo Labia in Venice by G. B. Tiepolo, OK. 1750). Baroque plafonds created the illusion of disappearance of the roof, a "breakthrough" into the sky with swirling clouds, where crowds of mythological and biblical characters were carried away in a swift colorful whirlpool. The work of the greatest masters of the 17th century finds itself in touch with the Baroque style: D. Velazquez, Rembrandt, F. Khalsa and etc.
In Russia, elements of the Baroque appeared later than in Europe - in the second half. 17th century - in the paintings of Yaroslavl churches, in arts and crafts, in the buildings of the so-called. Naryshkin Baroque, whose traditions were developed in his work by IP Zarudny ("Menshikov Tower" in Moscow, 1704-07). The style actively penetrated Russian culture with the beginning of the Peter's reforms in the first decades of the 18th century; in the 1760s. baroque gives way classicism... At the invitation of Peter I, many foreign masters come to Russia: architects D. Trezzini, A. Schlüter, G.I. Mattarnovi, N. Michetti, sculptors N. Pino, B.K. Rastrelli, painters I.G. Tannauer, L. Caravac, engravers A. Shkhonebek, P. Picard and others.
In accordance with Peter's personal tastes, visitors and domestic artists were guided mainly by the more restrained version of the Baroque that had developed in Holland; the mystical exaltation of the works of Italian masters remained alien to Russian art. In Russia, the baroque coexisted (and often intertwined) not with classicism, as it was in Europe, but with the emerging rococo... Portrait became the leading genre of painting. Baroque stylistics permeated the entire system of decoration of holidays and celebrations of the early 18th century, which took shape in the reign of Peter I (illuminations, fireworks, erected from temporary materials triumphal arches, abundantly decorated with decorative painting and sculpture). The leading baroque sculpture in Russia was the Italian BK Rastrelli. In his portraits and monuments, the solemn elevation of the image, the complexity of the spatial composition are combined with jewelry subtlety in the execution of details ("Empress Anna Ioannovna with a little arapchon", 1741). A striking example of Baroque naturalism is Rastrelli's "The Wax Person" of Peter I (1725).
In Russian painting of the Petrine era (I.N. Nikitin, A. M. Matveev) the influence of the Baroque is felt in a special uplifting, increased internal energy of the portrait images.
The heyday of the Baroque in Russia fell on the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-61). The most striking embodiment of the style in architecture was the solemn buildings, full of life-affirming pathos, created by B.F. Rastrelli(Winter Palace, 1732-33; palaces of M. I. Vorontsov, 1749-57, and S. G. Stroganov, 1752-54, in St. Petersburg). The grandiose landscape gardening ensembles in Peterhof (1747-52) and Tsarskoe Selo (1752-57) fully embodied the synthesis of architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative and applied and landscape art. Bright - blue, white, gold - colors of the palace facades; water cascades and fountains in parks with their incessant noise and incessant movement of falling water, reflecting the sun glare during the day, and the ghostly lights of fireworks at night - all created a festive spectacle. Rastrelli's church architecture combined the traditions of European Baroque and Old Russian architecture (Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, 1748-54). The leading Baroque architects of the mid-18th century. there were also SI Chevakinsky, who worked in St. Petersburg (Nikolsky Naval Cathedral, 1753-62), and D.V. Ukhtomsky, who built in Moscow (Krasnye Vorota, 1753-57).
In plafond painting, the most recognized masters were the Italians D. Valeriani and A. Perezinotti, who also successfully worked in the genre of theatrical and decorative art. In the work of Russian masters, the leading genre remained the portrait. In the works of A.P. Antropov, the baroque was embodied in the images of the portrayed, saturated with power and strength, the contrast of internal energy and external immobility, stiffness, in the authenticity of individual, carefully painted details, in bright, decorative color.
Russian engraving the Baroque era (A.F. Teeth) combined rationalism, efficiency with showiness in depicting naval battles, solemn processions, ceremonial views of the new capital of Russia. Engravers ser. 18th century often turned to the urban landscape (ceremonial views of St. Petersburg, made according to the originals of M.I. , atlases and book illustrations). These graphic works combined documentary thoroughness in depicting the smallest details and an abundance of decorative elements - cartouches with inscriptions, vignettes, rich and abundant ornamentation.
Baroque style with its dynamic forms, contrasts and restless play of chiaroscuro comes to life again in the era of romanticism.
Baroque (Italian barocco - "bizarre", "strange", "prone to excesses", port. perola barroca - "pearl of irregular shape" - a characteristic of the European culture of the XVII-XVIII centuries.
Baroque era
The Baroque era gives rise to a huge amount of time for the sake of entertainment: instead of pilgrimages - a promenade (walks in the park); instead of knightly tournaments - "carousels" (horseback riding) and card games; instead of mysteries - theater and masquerade ball. You can also add the appearance of a swing and "fiery fun" (fireworks). In the interiors, the place of icons was taken by portraits and landscapes, and the music from the spiritual turned into a pleasant play of sound.
Baroque features
Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, affectation, striving for grandeur and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (city and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards the autonomy of certain genres (Concerto Grosso, Sonata, Suite in instrumental music).
Baroque man
Baroque man rejects naturalness, which is identified with savagery, impudence, tyranny, brutality and ignorance. A Baroque woman values the pallor of her skin, she wears an unnatural, pretentious hairstyle, a corset and an artificially extended skirt on a whalebone frame. She's wearing heels.
And the ideal man in the Baroque era is the cavalier, the gentleman - from the English. gentle: "soft", "gentle", "calm". He prefers to shave his mustache and beard, wear perfume and powdered wigs. Why force, if now they kill by pulling the trigger of a musket.
Galileo for the first time directs a telescope to the stars and proves the rotation of the Earth around the Sun (1611), and Leeuwenhoek discovers tiny living organisms under a microscope (1675). Huge sailboats ply the vastness of the world's oceans, erasing white spots on the geographical maps of the world. Travelers and adventurers are becoming the literary symbols of the era.
Baroque in sculpture
Sculpture is an integral part of the Baroque style. The greatest sculptor and recognized architect of the 17th century was an Italian Lorenzo Bernini(1598-1680). Among his most famous sculptures are the mythological scenes of the abduction of Proserpine by the god of the underworld Pluto and the miraculous transformation into a tree of the nymph Daphne, pursued by the god of light Apollo, as well as the altar group "Ecstasy of St. Teresa" in one of the Roman churches. The last of them, with its clouds carved out of marble and the robes of the characters as if fluttering in the wind, with theatrically exaggerated feelings, very accurately expresses the aspirations of the sculptors of this era.
In Spain, in the era of the Baroque style, wooden sculptures prevailed; for greater believability, they were made with glass eyes and even a crystal tear, real clothes were often worn on the statue.
Baroque in architecture
For baroque architecture ( L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B.F.Rastrell and in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in Rzeczpospolita) are characterized by spatial scope, cohesion, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Large-scale colonnades, an abundance of sculptures on the facades and interiors, volutes, a large number of rivets, bow facades with ripping in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters are often found. The domes acquire complex shapes, they are often multi-tiered, like those of St. Peter's in Rome. Typical baroque details are telamon (atlant), caryatid, mascaron.
Baroque in the interior
The baroque style is characterized by ostentatious luxury, although it retains such an important feature of the classical style as symmetry.
Wall painting (one of the types of monumental painting) has been used in decorating European interiors since early Christian times. In the Baroque era, it was most widespread. The interiors used a lot of color and large, richly decorated details: the ceiling decorated with frescoes, marble walls and parts of the decor, gilding. Color contrasts were characteristic - for example, the marble floor, decorated with checkerboard tiles. Abundant gilded decorations were a characteristic feature of this style.
The furniture was a piece of art, and was intended almost exclusively for interior decoration. Chairs, sofas and armchairs were upholstered in expensive, richly dyed fabric. Huge canopy beds with flowing down bedspreads and giant wardrobes were widespread. The mirrors were decorated with sculptures and stucco moldings with floral patterns. Southern walnut and Ceylon ebony were often used as furniture materials.
The Baroque style is not suitable for small spaces, as massive furniture and decorations take up a large volume of space.
Baroque fashion
The fashion of the Baroque era corresponds in France to the period of the reign of Louis XIV, the second half of the 17th century. This is the time of absolutism. Strict etiquette and complex ceremonial reigned at the court. The costume was subject to etiquette. France was a trendsetter in Europe, so other countries quickly adopted French fashion. This was the century when a general fashion was established in Europe, and national characteristics receded into the background or remained in the folk peasant costume. Before Peter I, European costumes were also worn in Russia by some aristocrats, although not everywhere.
The costume was characterized by stiffness, splendor, and an abundance of jewelry. The ideal man was Louis XIV, "the sun king", a skillful rider, dancer, shooter. He was short, so he wore high heels.
Baroque painting
The Baroque style in painting is characterized by dynamism of compositions, "flatness" and splendor of forms, aristocratic and uncommon plots. The most characteristic features of the Baroque are striking flamboyance and dynamism; a vivid example is creativity Rubens and Caravaggio.
Michelangelo Merisi (1571-1610), who was nicknamed after his birthplace near Milan Caravaggio, is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings, written on religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author's modern life, creating a contrast between the times of late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in the twilight, from which rays of light capture the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their specificity. Followers and imitators of Caravaggio, who at first were called caravaggists, and the current itself caravaggism, such as Annibale Carracci(1560-1609) or Guido Reni(1575-1642), adopted the riot of feelings and characteristic manner of Caravaggio, as well as his naturalism in depicting people and events.
BAROQUE (Italian - barocco, presumably from the Portuguese barroco - a pearl of irregular shape or from the Latin baroco - a mnemonic designation for one of the modes of syllogism in traditional logic), a style in art of the late 16-18 centuries. He covered all areas of plastic arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), literature, music and performing arts. The Baroque style was an expression of the typological commonality of national cultures during the period of formation of absolutism, which was accompanied by severe military conflicts (including the Thirty Years' War of 1618-48), the strengthening of Catholicism and church ideology (see Counter-Reformation). Thanks to this community, it is also legitimate to talk about the cultural and historical era of the Baroque, which inherited the Renaissance. The chronological boundaries of the baroque do not coincide in individual regions (in Latin America, a number of countries of Central and Eastern Europe, in Russia the style was formed later than in Western Europe) and in various types of art (for example, in the 18th century, baroque exhausted itself in Western European literature, but continued to exist in architecture, fine arts, music). Italy is rightfully considered the birthplace of the Baroque. Baroque is closely related to 16th century mannerism and coexists with classicism.
The Baroque style reflected a new worldview that replaced the Renaissance humanism and anthropocentrism, in which the features of rationalism and mystical spiritualism, the desire for the scientific systematization of knowledge and passion for magical and esoteric teachings, interest in the objective world in all its breadth and religious exaltation were contradictory. Scientific discoveries that pushed the boundaries of the universe brought awareness of the infinite complexity of the world, but at the same time turned man from the center of the universe into its small part. The destruction of the balance between man and the world manifested itself in the antinomy of the Baroque, which gravitates towards the sharp contrasts of the sublime and the low, the carnal and the spiritual, the refined and the brutal, the tragic and the comic, and so on. Calm balance, harmony of Renaissance art were replaced by heightened affectation, exaltation, stormy dynamics. At the same time, striving to actively influence the viewer-listener, the Baroque style relied on a carefully thought-out rational system of techniques, largely based on rhetoric [primarily on the teachings of "invention" (Latin inventio) and stylistic figures, "decoration" (Latin elocutio)]. Rhetorical principles were transferred to various types of art, determining the construction of a literary work, theatrical performance, programs of decorative and monumental painting cycles, musical compositions.
Wishing to combine contrasting images within one work, and often elements of various genres (tragicomedy, opera-ballet, etc.) and style manners, the Baroque masters attached particular importance to virtuoso artistry: the victory of technology over the material of art symbolized the triumph of the creative genius possessed by “ wit ”- the ability to combine distant and dissimilar concepts in a single image. The main instrument of "wit" was a metaphor - the most important of the Baroque tropes, "the mother of poetry" (E. Tesauro).
The desire for a comprehensive impact on the audience led to the rapprochement and interpenetration of various types of art, characteristic of the Baroque, (architectural illusions in painting and scenography, sculptural and picturesque architecture, theatricalization of sculpture, poetic and pictorial picturesque music, the combination of image and text in curly verses and in the genre of the emblem ). Pathetically "high" baroque with its inherent grandeur and splendor (architectural ensembles, altars and altar images, triumphs and apotheosis in painting, operas on mythological subjects, tragedy, heroic poem; theatrical performances - coronations, weddings, burials, etc.) side by side with chamber (still life in painting, pastoral and elegy in literature) and grassroots (comedy sideshows in opera and school drama) forms of the baroque. Life-likeness in baroque art often bordered on both spectacular theatricality (the motive of the world as a theater is typical of the baroque) and complex symbolism: an object depicted in a realistic manner concealed a hidden meaning.
The term "baroque" arose in the 18th century among art historians close to classicism (I. Vikelman, F. Milizia); initially expressed a negative assessment of the Italian architecture of the 17th century, and later all the art of this period. The epithet "baroque" in the classical normative aesthetics served as a designation for everything that was outside the rules and was contrary to orderliness and classical clarity. In musicology, the term "baroque" (for the first time - in the "Musical Dictionary" by J.J. Rousseau, 1768) for a long time also had a negative meaning, fixing attention on certain "oddities" that fell out of the norms of classicism. One of the first historical interpretations of the baroque was given by J. Burckhardt (in the book "Il Cicerone", 1855), who defined the baroque style in connection with the Italian architecture of the late 16th century. The theory of the baroque as a style in the visual arts, different from the Renaissance and classicism, was formulated by G. Wölflin (Renaissance and Baroque, 1888; Basic Concepts of Art History, 1915), who singled out formal categories to distinguish between essentially opposite Renaissance styles and baroque. The idea of the baroque as a historical style was transferred to literature and music only at the beginning of the 20th century. The modern concept of the Baroque tends to take it beyond the bounds of art and literature, to transfer it to areas such as sociology, politics, history, religion and philosophy. Sometimes the concept of "baroque" is interpreted not in a specific historical sense, but as a designation of a set of stylistic features that are periodically repeated at various stages of cultural evolution (for example, elements of baroque stylistics are seen in romanticism, expressionism, surrealism, Latin American magical realism, etc.).
V.D.Dazhina, K.A.Chekalov, D.O. Chekhovich.
Architecture and fine arts... Certain features of the Baroque style (craving for the grandiose, dynamic composition, dramatic tension) appeared already in the 16th century in the works of Correggio, Michelangelo, G. da Vignola, F. Barocci, Giambologna. The heyday of the Baroque dates back to the 1620-30s, the final stage falls on the middle of the 18th century, and in some countries at the end of this century.
The idea of a triumphant church was embodied in the art of the Baroque, which contributed to the solution of large-scale architectural problems, the creation of majestic ensembles (the square in front of St.Peter's Cathedral in Rome, the rebuilding of the most important Roman basilicas, the Churrigueresco style in Spain, etc.), the flourishing of picturesque interior design and a representative altar painting. Organic for the baroque was the idea of the triumph of power, which was reflected in the art of the court baroque, characteristic not only of the centers of absolutism (France, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Russia, some states of Germany and Italy), but also of the republics that asserted their power ( Venice, Genoa).
The inherent baroque striving for splendor of forms, spectacular spectacle most clearly manifested itself in architecture. It was in the Baroque era that a new European urban planning was born, the type of a modern house, street, square, city estate was developed. In the countries of Latin America, the Baroque town-planning principles have determined the appearance of many cities. Palace and park ensembles (Versailles, Petrodvorets, Aranjuez, Zwinger, etc.) are developing, decorative and applied and small sculptural forms, landscape gardening are flourishing. Baroque architecture is characterized by a tendency towards the synthesis of arts, the emphasized interaction of volume with the spatial environment (the natural environment of the park, the openness of the architectural ensemble of the square), curvilinear plans and outlines, sculptural elasticity and plasticity of forms, contrasting play of light and shadow, different scales of volumes, illusionism (J. L. Bernini, F. Borromini, D. Fontana, Pietro da Cortona, K. Maderno, C. Rainaldi, G. Guarini, B. Longena, J. B. de Churriguera, G. Jesius, L. Vanvitelli, etc.) ... Painting and sculpture actively interact with architecture, transforming the interior space; stucco molding, various materials in their spectacular and colorful combinations (bronze, multi-colored marble, granite, alabaster, gilding, etc.) are widely used.
In the visual arts of the Baroque, virtuoso in execution decorative compositions of religious, mythological or allegorical content (plafonds by Pietro da Cortona, A. Pozzo, the Carracci brothers, P.P. Rubens, G. B. Tiepolo), spectacular theatrical ceremonial portraits (A. Van Dyck, J.L. Bernini, G. Rigaud), fantastic (S. Rosa, A. Magnasco) and heroic (Domenichino) landscapes, as well as more chamber forms of portrait (Rubens), landscape and architectural lead (F. Guardi, J. A. Canaletto), pictorial parables (D. Fetti). Court life and its theatricalization contributed to the active development of representative forms of painting (decorative cycles of paintings in palace apartments, battle painting, mythological allegory, etc.). The perception of reality as an infinite and changeable space makes the painterly space boundless, which opens upward in spectacular ceiling compositions, goes deep into inventive architectural landscapes and theatrical scenery (scenography by B. Buontalenti, J.B. Aleotti, G. Torelli, J.L. Bernini, I. Jones, the Galli Bibbien family, and others). Perspective effects, spatial illusions, linear and compositional rhythms, contrast of scales violate integrity, give rise to a feeling of improvisation, free birth of forms, their variability. The primary role was played by optical effects, the fascination with the aerial perspective, the transfer of the atmosphere, transparency and humidity of the air (G. B. Tiepolo, F. Guardi, and others).
In the painting of the "high" baroque, oriented towards the so-called grand style, preference was given to historical and mythological genres, which were then considered the highest in the genre hierarchy. In this era, the "lower" (in the terminology of that time) genres arose and developed fruitfully: still life, genre painting itself, landscape. The democratic direction of the Baroque, alien to theatricalization and affectation of feelings, manifested itself in realistic everyday scenes ("painters of reality" in France, representatives of caravaggism, the bodegones genre in Spain, everyday life and still life in Holland and Flanders), non-church religious painting (J.M. Crespi, Rembrandt).
The Baroque style existed in many national variants, distinguished by their bright originality. For the Flemish Baroque, the most characteristic is the work of Rubens with his ability to convey the feeling of the fullness of life, its internal dynamics and variability by means of pictorial means. Spanish Baroque is distinguished by a more restrained and ascetic style combined with an orientation towards local realistic traditions (D. Velazquez, F. Zurbaran, J. de Ribera, architect JB de Herrera). In Germany (architects and sculptors B. von Neumann, A. Schlüter, the Azam brothers, and others) and Austria (architects I.B. Fischer von Erlach and J.L. von Hildebrandt), the Baroque style was often combined with Rococo features. In French art, the Baroque retains a Renaissance rationalistic basis, and later actively interacts with classicist elements (the so-called baroque classicism). Certain stylistic features of the Baroque were manifested in the emphasized decorativeism of the buildings of the state rooms of Versailles, decorative panels by S. Vouet and C. Lebrun. England, with its characteristic cult of classical forms and Palladianism (J. Jones, C. Wren), has mastered a more restrained version of the Baroque style (mainly in decorative painting and interior design). The style manifested itself in restrained, ascetic forms in some Protestant countries (Holland, Sweden, etc.). In Russia, the development of the Baroque style falls on the 18th century (flourishing - 1740-50s), which was associated with the growth and strengthening of the absolute monarchy. The earlier period, defined as the Naryshkin Baroque, is closely related to the traditions of the architecture of Ancient Rus and has no direct relation to the Baroque style. The originality of the Russian baroque was determined not only by the stability of national traditions and forms, but also by the interaction of baroque features with classicism and rococo (sculptor K.B. Rastrelli, architects B.F.Rastrelli, S.I. Chevakinsky, D.V. Ukhtomsky). National variants of the Baroque style emerged in Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Western Ukraine, Lithuania. The centers of the spread of the baroque were not only European countries, but also a number of Latin American countries (especially Mexico and Brazil, where the baroque acquired hypertrophied features in the forms of ultra-baroque), as well as the Philippines and other Spanish colonies.
V.D.Dazhin.
Literature... The early manifestations of the Baroque in literature, retaining closeness to Mannerism, date back to the last quarter of the 16th century: the tragedy of R. Garnier "Hippolyte" (1573), "Tragic Poems" by T.A. d 'Aubigne (created in 1577-79 , published in 1616), T. Tasso's poem "Jerusalem Liberated" (1581). The style fades away in the second half of the 17th century (the founding of the Arcadia Academy in 1690 is considered the chronological border of the Baroque for Italy), however, it continues to be retained in Slavic literature in the Age of Enlightenment.
Form-creative experimental beginning, craving for novelty, for the unusual and unusual in Baroque literature are associated with the formation of the new European picture of the world and are largely generated by the same renewal of cognitive paradigms as scientific and geographical discoveries at the turn of the 16-17 centuries. The influence of new European empiricism is reflected in the active use by writers of life-like and even naturalistic forms (not only in prose, but also in poetry), which, according to the law of contrast, are combined with the hyperbolism of style and the cosmism of the figurative system (J. Marino's poem "Adonis", published in 1623) ...
The most important component of the baroque is the striving for diversity (Latin "varietas"), which was considered as one of the criteria for the artistic perfection of poetry (including the baroque by Gracian and Morales, E. Tesauro, Tristan L 'Hermit and especially J.P. Camus, the creator of the monumental 11-volume work "Variegated mixture", 1609-19). Comprehensiveness, the desire to summarize knowledge about the world (taking into account the latest discoveries and inventions) are the characteristic features of the Baroque. In other cases, encyclopedism turns into chaos, collecting curiosities; the sequence of the survey of the universe takes on an extremely whimsical, individual-associative character; the world appears as a labyrinth of words, a set of mysterious signs (treatise of the Jesuit E. Binet "Experience of Miracles", 1621). Books of emblems are widely popular as universal collections of various kinds of truths and ideas about the world: the influence of emblems is felt in the poetry of G. Marino, F. von Tsesen, J. Morsztyn, Simeon of Polotsk, in the novel by B. Gracian-i-Morales "Criticon" (1651-57 years).
Baroque literature is characterized by the desire to study being in its contrasts (darkness and light, flesh and spirit, time and eternity, life and death), in its dynamics and at various levels (pendulum movement between the levels of social hierarchy in H. von Grimmelshausen's novel “ Simplicissimus ", 1668-1669). Baroque poetics is marked by increased attention to the symbols of the night (A. Griffius, G. Marino), the theme of the transitory and impermanence of the world (B. Pascal, J. Duperron, L. de Gongora-y-Argote), dream life (F. de Quevedo-i -Villegas, P. Calderon de la Barca). In baroque texts, the ecclesiastical formula of "the vanity of the world" (Latin vanitas mundi) is often heard. Ecstaticity, a spiritual beginning often merge with a morbid fascination with death (the treatise by J. Donne "Biotanatos", published in 1644; poetry by J. B. Chassigne). Both stoic indifference to suffering (A. Griffius) and sublimated eroticism (F. Deport, T. Carew) can become a recipe against this fascination. The tragedy of the Baroque partly has a socio-historical determinism (wars in France, Germany, etc.).
Marked by stylistic sophistication and saturated with rhetorical figures (repetitions, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, oxymorons, etc.), baroque poetry developed within the framework of national variants: gongorism and conceptism (in which the deliberate semantic obscurity inherent in the baroque was expressed with particular force) in Spain, marineism in Italy, the metaphysical school and eufuism in England. Spiritual poems (P. Fleming, J. Herbert, J. Lubrano) occupy an important place in baroque poetry along with works of a secular, court and salon (V. Vuatur) character. The most popular genres are sonnet, epigram, madrigal, satire, religious and heroic poem, etc.
The genre of the novel is extremely significant for the Western European Baroque; it is in this genre that the baroque most fully reveals itself as an international style: thus, the Latin-language novel by G. Barclay "Argenida" (1621) becomes a model for narrative prose throughout Western Europe. Along with the real-life and satirical modifications of the baroque novel (C. Sorel, P. Scarron, A. Fuuretier, I. Mosheroche), its gallant and heroic variety (J. de Scuderi and M. de Scuderi, G. Marini, D.K. von Lohenstein). The so-called high baroque novel attracted readers not only with its intricate twists and turns, an abundance of literary and political allusions and an ingenious combination of "romantic" and cognitive beginnings, but also with its significant volume, which can be considered one of the manifestations of the baroque "poetics of amazement", striving to embrace the world in everything its whimsical variety. In terms of structural features, the religious novel of the Baroque is close to the gallant-heroic (J.P. Camus, A.J. Brignole Sale).
In the Baroque culture, marked by increased theatricality, dramatic genres occupy an important place - both secular (Elizabethan drama in England, pastoral tragicomedy, “new comedy” in Spain) and religious (Spanish auto, biblical dramas by J. van den Vondel). The early dramaturgy of P. Corneille also belongs to the baroque; his "Comic Illusion" (1635-36) is an encyclopedia of theatrical genres of the 16-17 centuries.
Baroque literature, following the mannerist literature, tends to genre experiments and a mixture of genres (the emergence of the essay genre, heroic and burlesque poems, tragicomedy opera). The Simplicissimus by H. von Grimmelshausen combines elements of rogue, allegorical, utopian, pastoral novels, as well as the style of schwanks and popular prints. The scholarly Christian epic Paradise Lost by J. Milton (1667-74) also includes a number of small genres - ode, hymn, pastoral eclogue, georgica, epithalamus, complaint, alba, etc.
A characteristic feature of the Baroque, paradoxically combined with a tendency towards anomality, is a tendency towards theoretical self-reflection: the treatises "Wit and the art of a sophisticated mind" by B. Gracian-i-Morales (1642-48), "Aristotle's telescope" by E. Tesauro (published in 1655). A number of Baroque novels include a literary and aesthetic commentary: The Wild Shepherd by S. Sorel (1627), The Dog of Diogenes by F. F. Frugoni (1687-89); Assenat by F. von Zesen (1670).
In the Slavic countries, baroque has a number of features that make it possible to speak of "Slavic baroque" as a special modification of the style (the term was proposed in 1961 by A. Andyal). In a number of cases, it is perceived as a secondary in relation to Western European models (J. Morsztyn as the successor of marineism in Polish poetry), however, the first Polish poetics of M.K. Gracian y Morales and E. Tesauro. The highest achievements of the Slavic Baroque are associated with poetry (philosophical and love poetry in Poland, religious poetry in the Czech Republic). In the Russian literary baroque, a tragic attitude is less pronounced, it is characterized by a ceremonial, state pathos, an enlightenment principle, strongly expressed by the founder of the poetic baroque in Russia Simeon Polotsky, his student Sylvester (Medvedev) and Karion Istomin. In the 18th century, the Baroque traditions were supported by Feofan Prokopovich and Stefan Yavorsky; the narrative structures of the baroque novel are used in Masonic prose ("Cadmus and Harmony" by M. M. Kheraskov, 1786).
K. A. Chekalov.
Music... The Baroque style prevailed in European professional music of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th century. The boundaries of the Baroque era, as well as the traditional division into the stages of the early (1st half of the 17th century), mature (2nd half of the 17th century) and late (1st half of the 18th century) baroque, are rather arbitrary, since the baroque was established in music different countries at the same time. In Italy, baroque made itself felt at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, that is, about 2 decades earlier than in Germany, and it penetrated into Russian music only in the last quarter of the 17th century due to the spread of partisan singing.
In the modern view of the baroque, it is a complex style that unites diverse manners of composition and performance, that is, the actual “styles” in the understanding of musical theorists of the 17-18 centuries (“church”, “theatrical”, “concert”, “chamber”), styles of national schools and individual composers. The diversity of the baroque in music is clearly manifested when comparing such stylistically distant compositions as the operas by F. Cavalli and G. Purcell, polyphonic cycles by G. Frescobaldi and violin concertos by A. Vivaldi, "Sacred Symphonies" by G. Schutz and oratorios by G. F. Handel. They, however, show a significant degree of commonality when compared with examples of Renaissance music from the 16th century and with the classical style of the 2nd half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. As in the preceding musical-historical epochs, the musical in the Baroque is closely connected with the non-musical (in a word, number, dance movement); however, a new phenomenon also arises - the isolation of purely musical methods of organization, which made possible the flourishing of the genres of instrumental music.
The era of the Baroque in music is often called the era of the general bass, thus noting the widespread and important role of this system of composing, recording and performing music. The possibility of different decoding of the general bass testifies to the specificity of baroque compositions - their fundamental variability and significant dependence on a specific performing embodiment, in which performers (as a rule, in the absence of detailed author's instructions in the musical text) have to determine the tempo, dynamic nuances, instrumentation, and the possibility of the use of melodic embellishments, and so on, up to the significant role of improvisation in a number of genres (for example, in the "untactivated" preludes of the 17th century French harpsichordists L. Couperin, N. Lebesgue, etc., in the cadenzas of soloists in instrumental concerts of the 18th century, in reprise sections of da capo).
Baroque is the first style in the history of European music with the obvious dominance of the major-minor tonal system (see Harmony, Tonality). It was within the framework of the baroque that homophony first declared itself (the division of musical texture into the main melodic voice and accompaniment). At the same time, the free style of polyphony and its highest form, the fugue, was formed and reached its peak (in the works of J.S. Bach); in baroque music, a mixed type of texture is used, combining elements of polyphony and homophony. It was at this time that an individualized musical theme was formed. As a rule, a baroque musical theme consists of a bright initial intonation core, followed by a more or less prolonged unfolding, leading to a short end - cadence. Baroque themes, as well as entire compositions, are characterized by a much greater metro-rhythmic freedom in comparison with classical ones based on a rather rigid song and dance framework.
In the Baroque era, music expanded its expressive possibilities, especially in an effort to convey the diversity of human emotional experiences; they were presented in the form of generalized emotional states - affects (see Affects theory). However, the main task of music in the Baroque era was considered to be the glorification of God. Therefore, in the genre hierarchy recorded in the theoretical treatises of that time, the primacy was invariably assigned to the genres of church music. Nevertheless, in practice, secular music has proved to be no less significant, especially in the field of musical theater. It was in the Baroque era that the most important musical and stage genre, opera, took shape and passed through a very long period of its history, the degree of spread and development of which was in many ways an indicator of the level of the musical culture of a particular country. Venice (late C. Monteverdi, F. Cavalli, M.A.Chesty), Rome (S. Landi), Naples (A. Scarlatti), Hamburg (German operas by R. Kaiser, G.F . Handel), Vienna (Honor, A. Caldara, I. J. Fuchs), Paris (J. B. Lully, J. F. Rameau), London (G. Purcell, Handel's Italian operas). Both new vocal genres (oratorio and cantata) and traditional genres of church music (in late Baroque masses, motets, passions, and so on, operatic forms were actively used: aria, duet, recitative) were influenced by opera. The stylistic differences between church and secular music became less and less significant, which made it possible to use the same musical material in both secular and church compositions (numerous examples are in the works of J.S.Bach).
The Baroque era was the culmination of organ art, which was actively developing in the Netherlands (J.P. Sweelink), Italy (J. Frescobaldi), France (F. Couperin, L. Marchand), but most of all in the Protestant lands of Germany, where they worked with Scheidt, I. Pachelbel, D. Buxtehude, J. S. Bach. Many genres associated with religious symbolism and designed to be performed in the church (fantasy, toccata, prelude, fugue, choral variations, and so on) had, nevertheless, not a liturgical, but a concert purpose. Other genres of instrumental music were also actively used: triosonata (A. Corelli, G.F. Telemann, etc.), a dance suite for various compositions - from harpsichord or solo violin to large ensembles (F. F. Handel and others), a concert for a solo instrument with an orchestra (A. Vivaldi, I. S. Bach and others), a concert grosso (Corelli, Handel). In the Concerto Grosso (an ensemble-orchestral concert with a group of soloists), the characteristic qualities of the Baroque were clearly manifested - the active use of the principle of concert, contrasting comparisons of sound masses of different density (many vocal compositions of the Baroque era, including the so-called sacred concerts, which received a special spread in Russia at the end of 17-18 centuries).
The connection with rhetoric is expressed both in the general principles of the arrangement of musical material, and in the use of specific melodic-rhythmic turns with established semantics - the so-called musical-rhetorical figures, which in vocal music strengthened the meaning of the verbal text, and in instrumental music - to a certain extent allowed “ decipher "figurative content (however, to reveal the content F. Couperin, J. F. Rameau, G. F. Telemann, instrumental works were often given characteristic names, and I. Froberger, I. Kuhnau, A. Vivaldi even accompanied them with detailed literary programs ). However, instrumental music devoid of word support, which in many respects retained its applied functions (dance, table, etc.), gradually acquired an aesthetic value in itself, turning into concert music itself.
Elements of the Baroque style were also used in the music of the classical period (up to L. van Beethoven), and later in the neoclassicism of the 20th century (by I.F. Stravinsky, P. Hindemith). In the performance of baroque music, historical musical instruments (authentic or their exact copies) are increasingly used, the acoustic conditions specific to it, the performing principles of the era, recorded in musical theoretical treatises and literary and artistic monuments of the 17-18 centuries (see Authentic Performance), are being recreated.
Yu.S. Bocharov.
Lit .: General work. Schnürer G. Katholische Kirche und Kultur in der Barockzeit. Paderborn, 1937; Retorica e Barocco. Roma, 1955; Die Kunstformen des Barockzeitalters / Hrsg. von R. Stamm. Bern, 1956; Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem of styles in Western European art of the 15th-17th centuries. M., 1966; Baroque in Slavic cultures. M., 1982; Croce B. Storia dell 'età barocca in Italia. Mil. 1993; Paul J.-M. Images modernes et contemporaines de l 'homme baroque. Nancy 1997; Battistini A. Il barocco: cultura, miti, immagini. Roma, 2000; Welflin G. Renaissance and Baroque: A Study of the Essence and Formation of the Baroque Style in Italy. SPb., 2004.
Architecture and fine arts.
Riegl A. Die Entstehung der Barockkunst in Rom. W., 1908; Weisbach W. Der Barock als Kunst der Gegenreformation. B., 1921; idem. Die Kunst des Barock in Italien, Frankreich, Deutschland und Spanien. 2. Aufl. B., 1929; Male E. L 'art religieux après le concile de Trente. P., 1932; Fokker T. H. Roman Baroque art. The history of the style. L., 1938. Vol. 1-2; Praz M. Studies in seventeenth century imagery: In 2 vol. S. 1., 1939-1947; Mahon D. Studies in seicento art and theory. L., 1947; Friedrich C. J. The age of Baroque, 1610-1660. N. Y. 1952; Argan G. C. L 'architettura barocca in Italia. Rome, 1960; Battisti E. Renaiscimento e barocco. Firenze, 1960; Bialostocki J. Barock: Stil, Epoche, Haltung // Bialostocki J. Stil und Ikonographie. Dresden, 1966; Keleman P. Baroque and Rococo in Latin America. N. Y. 1967; Rotenberg E. I. Western European art of the 17th century. M., 1971; Held J.S., Posner D. 17th and 18th century art: baroque painting, sculpture, architecture. N. Y. 1971; Russian baroque art. M., 1977; Vipper B. Architecture of the Russian Baroque. M., 1978; Voss H. Die Malerei des Barock in Rom. S. F., 1997; The triumph of baroque: architecture in Europe, 1600-1750 / Ed. H. Millon. N. Y. 1999; Bazin J. Baroque and Rococo. M., 2001.
Literature. Raymond M. Baroque et renaissance poétique. P., 1955; Getto G. Barocco in prosa e in poesia. Mil. 1969; Sokolowska J. Spory about barok. Warsz., 1971; Dubois Cl. G. Le Baroque. P., 1973; Slavic baroque. M., 1979; Emrich W. Deutsche Literatur der Barockzeit. Königstein, 1981; Questionnement du baroque. Louvain; Brux. 1986; Identità e metamorfosi del barocco ispanico. Napoli 1987; Hoffmeister G. Deutsche und europäische Barockliteratur. Stuttg. 1987; Souiller D. La littérature baroque en Europe. P., 1988; Le ba- roque litteraire: théorie et pratiques. P., 1990; Pavih M. Barok. Beograd, 1991; Sazonova L.I. Poetry of the Russian Baroque (second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries). M., 1991; KuchowiczZ. Czlowiek polskiego baroku. Lodz 1992; Baroque in the avant-garde - avant-garde in the baroque. M., 1993; Mikhailov A.V. Poetics of the Baroque: the end of the rhetorical era // Mikhailov A.B. Languages of culture. M., 1997; Genette J. On a Baroque Narrative // Figures. M., 1998. T. 1; Hernas Cz. Barok. Warsz. 1998; Silyunas V.Yu. Lifestyle and Art Styles: (Spanish Mannerist and Baroque Theater). SPb., 2000; D 'Ors E. Lo Barocco. Madrid, 2002; Rousset J. La littérature de l âge baroque en France: Circé et le paon. P., 2002.
Music. Bukofzer M. Music in the Baroque era from Monteverdi to Bach. N. Y. 1947; Clercx S. Le baroque et la musique. Brux. 1948; Le baroque musical. Recueil d 'études sur la musique. Liège, 1964; Dammann R. Der Musikbegriff im deutschen Barock. Köln, 1967; Blume F. Renaissance and Baroque music. A comprehensive survey. N. Y. 1967; idem. Barock // Epochen der Musikgeschichte in Einzeldarstellungen. Kassel, 1974; Stricker R. Musique du baroque. ; Stefani G. Musica barocca. Mil. 1974; Livanova T.N. Western European music of the 17th-18th centuries among the arts. M., 1977; Raaben L. Baroque music // Questions of musical style. L., 1978; Braun W. Die Musik des 17. Jahrhunderts. Laaber, 1981; Donington R. Baroque music: style and performance. N.Y. 1982; Palisca C. V. Baroque Music. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, 1991; Baron J.H. Baroque music: a research and information guide. N. Y. 1992; Lobanova M. Western European Musical Baroque: Problems of Aesthetics and Poetics. M., 1994; Anderson N. Baroque music from Monteverdi to Handel. L., 1994.
Among the many styles in art, some stand out. These are, for example, classicism and, of course, baroque. To fully understand what baroque is, you must first of all study the history and realities of the era when this style was widespread in almost all of Europe. Let's talk about the distinctive features of the Baroque in art such as architecture and music.
What is the "baroque" style
Baroque is a whole era. This style originated in medieval Italy around the end of the 16th century, and reached its peak in the 17th-18th centuries, spreading in Europe, replacing the harsh Gothic. If you look for a suitable translation of this word from the Italian language, then you can stop at the option "prone to excesses." And also "barocco" means "licentious" and even "vicious". This is the word the Italians chose for this artistic style. However, the Portuguese word "barroco" (and in Portugal this style was also very common) means just "an irregularly shaped pearl." In general, this style can be characterized as lush, with a lot of excesses, majestic, luxurious and, at the same time, quite contrasting - in a word, the complete opposite of the classicism that replaced it somewhat later. The cheerful Baroque era replaced the harsh Middle Ages. That is why, instead of knightly tournaments, various amusements have become common - carousels, walks, fireworks, masquerades, etc. Pretentiousness and unnaturalness at this time are the norm. Everything that will be so dear to people of the era of romanticism: natural behavior, modesty and other similar qualities - is alien to the culture of the Baroque era. Hence such a craving for lush wigs and hairstyles, unnatural clothes and so on.
Baroque in architecture
Despite such strange features for later eras, the Baroque style in architecture, nevertheless, gave rise to many truly outstanding works. The names of great architects - such as Rastrelli and Bernini, Fontana and Borromini, Glaubitz and Rainaldi - will tell a lot even to an unprepared reader. As for the most significant architectural monuments of the Baroque era, we highlight, first of all, the famous Coronaro Chapel, which is located in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria, in Rome. We also note that the baroque gave rise to many branches, among which we highlight such styles as the Spanish Baroque, Sicilian Baroque, French Baroque (and a little later - Rococo) and Moscow Baroque, which we will talk about in more detail.
What is Moscow Baroque
This is the name of the architectural style in which at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. many buildings were built in Russia. The standard design of door and window openings, similar columns and other architectural elements make buildings made in this style very recognizable. It should also be noted that the Moscow Baroque subsequently developed into several independent architectural styles, which got their name from the names of the nobles and boyars, in whose lands such buildings were built. Of the main styles that originate from the Moscow baroque, we single out the Naryshkinsky, Golitsinsky, Stroganov styles and the Prozorovsky style. And here is a small list of the most significant architectural monuments (of the surviving ones) built in the Moscow Baroque style: the Refectory Chamber of the Simonov Monastery, the Temple of the Resurrection in Kadashi, the Assumption Cathedral in Ryazan, the Assumption Cathedral in Astrakhan, the Peter and Paul Cathedral in Kazan, the Tobolsk Kremlin. Many art historians attribute the last monument to a rather distinctive style - the so-called Siberian Baroque.
What is baroque in music
Replacing the music of the Renaissance, the music of the Baroque era is much more expressive. At the same time, like all the creations of this era, it is somewhat pretentious - sometimes even too much, and also very emotional. Although, it should be noted that a baroque work most often expresses some one specific emotion: joy or sadness, fun or sadness, etc.). As for the differences directly in the composition of the composition, then (the musicians will understand me), replacing the tonic shift in thirds, characteristic of the music of the Renaissance, the shift of the tonic began to occur in quarts and fifths. Among the outstanding composers of the Baroque era, I would like to mention C. Monteverdi, D. Buxtehude, A. Scarlatti, T. Albinoni, A. Vivaldi, J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel, G. Pergolesi and, of course, my beloved G. F. Telemann.
