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For us, this is a rectangular grid with days and weeks and the beginning of the year on January 1, but for other peoples the calendar looked different. This is how your custom calendar could be if you were not born here and in our time.

Calendars of different peoples of the world - from Egypt to China

• In Egypt, both lunar and solar calendars were used. The Egyptians began to use the lunar calendar as early as the 4th millennium BC, and the solar calendar later, from about 1700 BC. NS. The year lasted 365 days, and was divided into 12 months of 30 days. But there were not four seasons, as we are used to, but three, which corresponded to the stages of sowing, harvesting and the flood season. At the end of the year, there were 5 additional holidays in honor of the children of the god of the earth. It is interesting that the Egyptians were counting the years from the moment of the accession to the throne of the new pharaoh.
• The Chinese calendar is also called the eastern calendar. It is still used today to determine the dates of traditional Chinese holidays. This calendar became the basis for others - Vietnamese, Japanese, Tibetan and Korean. It consists of a 60-year cyclic system that combines two circles of cycles - a twelve-year cycle of "earthly branches", where each year has the name of an animal, and a ten-year cycle of "heavenly branches", behind which each year belongs to one of the five elements - water , wood, fire, metal or earth.
• Everyone remembers the mythical end of the world on December 21, 2012? This "important" date is due to the Mayan calendar. In this calendar, all time was divided into cycles, or "suns." The Maya tribes believed that by the end of each "sun" there should be a massive destruction of humanity. December 21, 2012 fell exactly at the end of the 5th cycle. The previous 4 cycles ended with earthquakes, hurricanes, "fire" rain and floods, respectively. The sixth cycle in the calendar was empty, since the priests could not see the future after the end of the fifth "sun".

Almost "modern" calendars of the peoples of the world

• At the beginning of the revolutionary era, the French decided to make their own calendar. It was introduced in 1793, but later, in 1806, Napoleon I canceled it. In principle, the calendar did not stand out in any way - all the same 365 days and 12 months - but 30 days each. The remaining 5 days (for leap years - six) were not included in the month and had a special name. The peculiarity of this calendar was the beginning of the year on the day of the autumnal equinox - that is, in each year there was a “new” New Year.
• It is impossible not to mention the Soviet revolutionary calendar! Although it didn't catch on, it was pretty interesting. The chronology was carried out as in the Gregorian calendar, but in the calendars themselves the year was indicated as "NN year of the socialist revolution." There were also 12 months, 30 days each, and the days that remained were called "monthless vacations." The week consisted of 5 days, and for each layer of workers the day off fell on a different day.

Transcript

1 PETROVA N.G. CALENDARS OF THE PEOPLES OF THE WORLD I know that there is a time when I am not asked about it, and when asked, the more I think, the more I am perplexed. Blessed Augustine The calendar is such a thing that neither logic nor astronomy can explain. E. Bikerman FOREWORD Time is a mystery that man has been trying to comprehend for thousands of years. Philosophers and astronomers, historians and poets have formulated dozens of definitions, comprehending the category of time. One of the ways to comprehend this secret is to create a time counting system, that is, a calendar. The calendar appears before us as a way of understanding the structure of the world, understanding its cyclical nature. Divine power creates the rational world, therefore, the periodicity of the seasons, months, day and night also has a divine origin. The origin of the calendar in ancient times was considered sacred. That is why, among all peoples, only priests or clergymen were engaged in measuring time, various reckonings associated with calendars. Any arbitrary change in the calendar could lead to the destruction of the order of life. Wanting to see their calendar, and therefore the whole course of life, orderly, many peoples went to the conscious admission of inaccuracies in the calendar for the sake of the symmetry of its basic units found in antiquity and, most importantly, for the sake of preserving its invariability. “It was not the calendar that depended on time, but in a sense, the time depended on it,” as A.N. Zelinsky.

2 PART I HISTORY OF THE CALENDAR Chapter 1 MYTHOLOGY OF THE CALENDAR In the ancient era, preceding the emergence of civilizations, mythology was, first of all, a way of understanding the world and explaining its contradictions. “How and why did the world come about?”, “Who created it?”, “Why does the sun shine during the day, and the moon at night?”, “Why are the seasons changing?” the answers to these questions gave rise to a system of myths, which are usually called cosmogonic, that is, revealing the essence of the structure of the universe. All of them, in one way or another, are connected with human attempts to explain the passage of time. The main "characters" of cosmogonic myths are darkness and light, chaos and order, planets (Moon, Sun, Earth, etc.), stars and constellations, and the plots of myths are built on the relationship of the main characters, their unity and struggle. And the consequence of this struggle was the change of day and night, the change of seasons and much more. Let's turn to some of the cosmogonic myths. Sumerian Myths The Sumerian tribes that settled in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the III millennium BC left behind many texts written on clay tablets. Among them there are also texts containing myths. Heaven and earth, according to Sumerian ideas, were the main elements of the universe. The earth was in the shape of a flat disk, and the sky was empty space. Between them was the third element, a certain "lil", an analogue of the modern atmosphere, which could move and occupy space. The sun, moon, planets and stars, like the lil, could move and, moreover, glow. Initially, there was only an ocean, in which heaven and earth were not separated from each other, but then "lil" separated them. After the separation of the flat earth from the firmament, luminous bodies appeared: the Sun, the Moon, etc. Finally, plants, animals and humans appeared. The Sumerians believed that the reason for world harmony and order was the existence of deities, each of which was responsible for a certain element of the universe. Enlil

3 "lord of the air", "king of gods and people", An god of the sky, Ki the goddess of the Earth, Sin, or Nanna the god of the moon, his children: Utu the sun god and Inanna the goddess of love and fertility, governing the planet Venus. The beginning of the universe, according to myths, looked like this: the sky god An and the earth goddess Ki gave birth to the air god Enlil. Enlil separated the sky from the earth. Appearing rather passive in all myths, An goes upstairs. And Enlil marries his mother, after which plants, animals and people are born. As for the birth of the planets, the moon god Sin was conceived after Enlil took possession of the beautiful girl Ninlil. The gods were angry with Enlil for this and drove him to the underworld. The faithful Nenlil follows him. However, the thought that their future son, the god of the moon, will be in the dungeon, instead of shining in the sky, prompts Enlil to perform a number of heroic deeds, as a result of which he, together with Nenlil, is born. In later myths, Enlil appears to be a good rather than an evil god: he, having taken pity on people, gives them a day, helps the growth of plants on earth, teaches people to agriculture. Enlil gives instructions to the god of wisdom, Enki, how to arrange the life of people. Enki, leaving behind a general leadership, gives specific assignments to the various gods. So, the sun god Utu Enki instructs to monitor the observance of boundaries "in the entire universe", he instructs other gods to teach people to build houses, brew beer, weave. Only the warlike goddess of love, Inanna, does he not give any instructions, thus incurring her anger 1. BABYLONIAN MYTHOLOGY In the mythology of the Akkadians (Babylonians), who lived north of the Sumerians, much was borrowed from the mythological plots of their neighbors. The Sumerian sun god Utu was called by the Akkadians Shamash, the moon god Nanna Sin, the goddess of love and fertility Inanna Ishtar. God Shamash occupied an exceptional position among the gods, since he was the supreme judge on earth and in heaven, predicted the future, guided and protected people. “Mighty mountains are full of your radiance, your light fills all countries. You are mighty over the mountains, you contemplate the earth, you wind at the ends of the earth, in the middle of the sky. You rule over the inhabitants of the entire universe. You break the horn of the one who designs evil; you imprison an unrighteous judge; you execute the one who takes bribes; to the fact

4 who does not take bribes and cares about the oppressed, Shamash is merciful, and his days are continued. Oh, Shamash, a traveler full of fear, a wandering merchant, a young merchant, a bearer of a purse of gold comes running to you. Oh, Shamash, a fisherman with a net, a hunter, a butcher, a cattle driver is praying to you ”so it was said in the hymn dedicated to the god Shamash. However, with the rise of Babylon, the supreme deity of this city, the god Marduk, began to play the main role in the mythology of the Akkadians. According to Babylonian myths, the Earth is a round boat floating in the world's ocean, and the Sky is a dome that covers the world. All celestial space is divided into three spheres: the upper sky belongs to Anu, the middle to Marduk, and in the lower sky, which people see, there are stars. The moon god Sin hides in the upper sky in those days when he is not visible from the Earth, and the Sun god Shamash hides at night. Every morning Shamash removes the castle, reveals the "mountain of sunrise", which is located in the east of the firmament, and sets off on a journey across the sky. And in the evenings, after passing through the "sunset mountain", he goes to sleep. All stars in Heaven have their place to which they are assigned, and on Earth they correspond to an earthly image. For example, every Babylonian city has its own constellation. Everything that exists on Earth: countries, rivers, temples are only reflections of the starry Sky. The Earth itself, like an inverted boat "ki", lies under the firmament. To strengthen the Earth, she was tied to Heaven with ropes and strengthened with pegs. The ropes we see is the Milky Way 2. Mesopotamian (Mesopotamia the Greeks called Mesopotamia) culture became famous for the creation of astrology. In the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, a huge number of clay tablets with the texts of predictions and forecasts were found. Full moons and new moons, solar and lunar eclipses, unusual shapes of clouds, movement of planets, mainly Venus, relative to fixed stars, thunder, earthquakes, all these phenomena are interpreted in astrological forecasts and horoscopes. True, some rulers were sometimes very skeptical about predictions and did not trust the astrologers, however, judging by individual records on the tablets, they always repented of their doubts: “This is what he [the text] tells about this eclipse, which [happened in] the month of Nisan: "If the planet Jupiter is in the sky during an eclipse, this is favorable for the king, because some important person [at court] will die instead of him," but the king closed his ears and look, before a month had passed, the supreme judge died "3.

5 EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY In a country that has preserved the only one of the seven “wonders of the world”, the symbol and embodiment of the eternity of the pyramid, various, sometimes contradictory cosmogonic myths have arisen at different periods of history. The same heroes appeared in a wide variety of guises. For example, the goddess of the sky Nut was depicted as a heavenly cow, whose body is covered with stars; then in the form of a woman whose body is bent above the ground; sometimes in the guise of a pig, but as a protector and patroness of the dead with outstretched wings on sarcophagi. And in each of these images, the Egyptians' idea of ​​the sky was embodied. In many myths, the world appears as born of a deity that has neither name nor image. Egyptian priests called him "He who exists by himself", "The First Cause of all life", "Father of fathers, mother of mothers." To make it easier for people to imagine the appearance of the gods, they could take the form of an animal or a bird. Falcon Hor (Horus), flying through the world space, gives birth to day and night, seasons. His left eye is the Moon, his right eye is the Sun. According to one of the myths, the most perfect image of the creator god of the Sun is Ra, or Amon-Ra, who emerged from the lotus flower. And there was light after you (Amon-Ra) arose. You have illuminated Egypt with your rays, When your disk shone. People became clear when Your right eye flashed for the first time, Your left eye drove away the darkness of the night. According to other myths, the world was originally chaos, from which the gods of air and moisture emerged. From their marriage the god of the Earth Geb and the goddess of the sky Nut were born, from whose marriage, in turn, the stars were born. Mighty your heart, O great Nut, who has become the sky. You fill every place with your beauty. The whole earth lies before you, you embraced it, you surrounded the earth, and all things

6 do it yourself. Originally Nut and Geb were merged together. Chickpea gave birth to stars in the evenings, and swallowed them in the morning. This continued until Geb became angry with Nut, calling her a pig that eats its piglets. The Sun God Ra, seeing that heaven and earth no longer live in harmony, separated them. During the day, Nut is above the ground, and at night it goes down. Egyptian creation myths are closely related to solar myths, reflecting the Egyptians' ideas about the changing seasons. In Egypt, there are three seasons, which in ancient times were called "the time of drought", when sultry winds blow from the desert and all life freezes; "Flood time" during this period the Nile is overflowing, and "germination time" is the time to harvest. In the hottest season, when the sun beats mercilessly, this means, according to the Egyptians, that the sun god Ra is angry with people and punishes them for their sins. To fulfill his will, Ra sends his daughter Hathor to people in the form of a lioness. She pounces on people in the desert, tears them to pieces and floods the sand with blood. In the myth of the punishment of the people, Ra, seeing the execution of his order, asks the lioness-hathor to return. However, having tasted the blood and felt the power over people, the beast wants to destroy the entire human race. Horrified at the sight of the carnage arranged by his daughter, Ra comes up with a trick: he orders the beer to be tinted with crushed red powder and let Hathor drink. Fed and drunk, Hathor leaves people alone. Since then, in order to protect themselves, people annually bring jugs of beer to the statue of the goddess 4. The movement of the sun in the sky to the Egyptians was imagined as the journey of the god Ra in a golden boat along the heavenly Nile. In the day boat Manjet, he floats, illuminating the earth, and in the night boat Mesekset, he moves along the underground Nile, illuminating the world of the dead. During the day's voyage of the sun god Ra, his enemy, the huge serpent Apop, lies in wait. He tries to destroy Ra by drinking the waters of the Nile. However, Ra and his retinue, fighting the serpent, invariably defeat him and force him to pluck the waters of the Nile back. One of the Egyptian myths tells about the reasons for the change of day and night as follows. When Ra grew old and decided to abdicate the throne, he summoned the god of wisdom Thoth and commanded him to shine in heaven instead of himself. But Thoth refused to reign alone. Then Ra agreed to shine in the sky during the day, and gave the night time to Thoth: this is how the Moon appeared in the sky. Night comes to replace day, because Thoth and Ra replace each other on the throne. After the division of power, the silver boat of Thoth Luna transports the souls of the dead along

7 night sky to the afterlife. "No god hits him, no carrier opposes him on the way: he is the One." It is interesting that Thoth was not only the god of wisdom, the patron saint of knowledge, magic and sorcery, the god of the lunar disk in Egyptian mythology, but also a calculator of time. Often he was depicted with a palm branch in his hand as a symbol of dominion over time. The ibis was considered the sacred bird of the god Thoth, with the arrival of which the beginning of the floods of the Nile was associated. HINDU MYTHOLOGY Indian epic poems such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana and many others describe the birth from the cosmic egg of the god Brahma, who then creates the universe. The earth appears in the form of a flat disk, in the center of which the axis of the world is Mount Meru. The Sun, Moon and stars revolve around Mount Meru. Six heavens rise in tiers above the Earth. The highest and most beautiful is the world of Brahma. The heavens are inhabited by gods, holy sages and beings of divine origin. Among the gods you can find the God of Heaven, he was called Dyaus, and his wife, the goddess of the Earth, Prithivi. Their son was the god of storms and rains, Indra, a fighter against the demon of drought, a monstrous serpent, in whose womb captives languish: heavenly cows-clouds and heavenly waters. The storm god Indra is also fighting with the Sun god Surya, gaining the upper hand over him and taking the wheel from his chariot. The Sun God Surya with burning hair, in a chariot drawn by seven blue horses, rushes across the sky, shines to the whole world and observes everything that people do. He is the all-seeing eye of the gods, one of the main deities. Surya is born in the east, bypasses the earth and the sky during the day, pouring out light and warmth, expels darkness, diseases, enemies. The evil demon Rahu is chasing Surya, and one day, in anger, the Sun God threatens to incinerate the whole world with his burning rays. Confirmation of the significance of the position of the sun god in the hierarchy of gods can be seen, for example, in the number of the main gods in Hindu mythology at a certain period: 12 gods personify the position of the sun in each of the 12 months of the year. Surya's wife is the goddess of the morning dawn Ushas. Here its sparkling rays appeared again. She gets up, chases the black shapeless night

8 so it is said about her in one of the hymns. The birth of the Moon in some myths is associated with the drink of the gods, which gave immortality and strength for the exploits of soma. When the gods drink the drink, there is less of it, and you have to wait for the sun to refill the cup. Subsequently, the god of the moon himself began to be called Soma. In Indian mythology, the moon god was considered the patron saint of stars, sacrifices and priests. One of the Indian poems tells how the son of Brahma marries off his 27 daughters to Soma, who personify the constellations of the lunar zodiac. The moon god was also the patron saint of vegetation: at night, plants feed on moisture and therefore their growth occurs. Together with Indra, Varuna appears as the main god. He paves the way for streams of water, covers the Ocean, fills the sea with water, watches over the flow of rivers, and also protects truth and justice. This is the king of gods and people, the organizer of the entire universe. Varuna established the sequence of the seasons, the change of months, gave movement to the Sun, Moon and stars. He has a thousand eyes, and the Sun is one of them. By the order of Varuna, day is followed by night. The year in Hindu mythology is the ripening time from the egg floating in the waters of the ocean, the god Brahma. Brahma is born from an egg and creates the world 5. CHINESE MYTHOLOGY According to the most ancient Chinese myths, chaos reigned in the world for a long time, and nothing could be distinguished. But over time, Light and Darkness emerged from the chaos, from which the Earth and the Sky were formed. Then the first person, Pangu, appeared. He was huge and lived for a very long time. When Pangu opened his eyes, day came, and when he closed, night came. Wind, rain, thunder and lightning were born from his breath. After Pangu's death, nature and people were formed from various parts of his body: his arms, legs and torso turned into four cardinal points and five main mountains, blood turned into rivers, muscles into earthly soil, hair into trees and grasses. Simple stones and metals were formed from his teeth and bones, precious stones from his brain. The change of day and night in later times was explained by the myth of the ten suns. Each of the suns alternately travels from east to west. While one sun is on its way, the other nine wait their turn at the edge of the sky, so people

9 always see only one sun. But once the order was violated: all ten luminaries appeared in the sky at the same time during the day and at the same time went beyond the horizon in the evening. A drought set in on the earth, people were dying of heat. Then the most skillful of the archers, Hou Yi, took a long bow and fired until there was only one sun in the sky. The goddess of the moon in ancient Chinese mythology was Chang-e, the wife of a skilled shooter I. Once, in secret, she drank the potion of immortality, which was kept by her husband, and took off to the moon. Since then, she has lived there alone. According to other myths, a three-legged toad or a white hare lives on the moon, pounding the medicine of immortality in a mortar. In Chinese mythology, there was a special deity, the ruler of the time Tai-Sui. It was matched by the planet Jupiter, which the Chinese called "controlling time", since the period of Jupiter's revolution around the Sun is almost 12 years (11.9). Tai-Sui appears as a formidable commander who controls the months, seasons, days. Before starting any work, sacrifices were made to him. However, it was believed that a stubborn desire to find his favor, as well as a complete unwillingness to reckon with him, equally lead people to misfortune. Often the god of time can be seen depicted with an ax and a goblet, or a spear and a bell, capturing the souls of people 6. GREEK MYTHOLOGY The earliest Greek myths described the birth of gods and all living things in the ocean stream that washed the whole world. The black-winged goddess Night, reciprocating with the Wind, gave birth to a silver egg in the womb of Darkness. Eros, the god of love hatched from this egg, set the universe in motion. He gave birth to the earth, sky, sun and moon. The night constituted a triad together with Order and Justice. This is how the world was created. The appearance of Eros before other gods meant that no one could be born without him. Later, the Greeks represented him in the form of a willful boy, fluttering on golden wings and having no respect for either age or the position of any of the people and gods. According to another version, the silver egg of the Night is the moon. The god of love Eros (or Fanet) is the sun and the symbol of light. His four heads, appearing as separate deities,

10 symbolized the four seasons: Zeus (ram) Spring, Helios (lion) Summer, Hades (snake) Winter, Dionysus (bull) New Year. In the Olympic period of mythology, the origin of the world was explained as follows: from the Darkness, Chaos arose, from the union of Darkness and Chaos, Night, Day, Erebus (underground darkness) and Air appeared. Night and Erebus gave birth to Fate, Old Age, Death, Murder, Voluptuousness, Sleep, Dreams, Quarrel, Sadness, Annoyance, as well as the goddess of justice Nemesis, Joy, Friendship, Compassion. From the union of Air and Day, the goddess of the earth Gaia, the Sky, the Sea, appeared. Air and Gaia, in turn, gave birth to Fear, Tiring Labor, Rage, Enmity, Deception, Oaths, Blinding of the soul, Intemperance, Conversation, Oblivion, Sorrow, Pride, Battles, Ocean, the underworld of Tartarus, as well as titans and goddesses of vengeance Erinyes with snakes in the hair. The God of all things (sometimes the Greeks called him Nature) then separated the earth from the sky, put the universe in order, singled out a hot, cold and temperate climate on the earth, created mountains and valleys, grasses and trees. Above the earth, he installed a revolving firmament and strewn it with stars, settled in the sky five planets, the sun and the moon. He inhabited seas and rivers with fish, forests with animals. He also created man. Gaia earth and sky Uranus initially gave birth to only monsters: hundred-handed giants and one-eyed cyclops. Therefore, Uranus cast all his children into Tartarus. But the titans spawned by him later rebelled and, with the blessing of mother earth, decided to take revenge on their father: the youngest of the titans Cronus castrated Uranus and freed his brothers from the dungeon. Later, Cronus became the "father of time" among the Greeks with his inexorable sickle. According to the prediction of dying Uranus, one of the sons of Cronus in the future was also supposed to overthrow his father. Fearing the prediction of Uranus, Cronus ate his children, begotten by Rhea. Desperate Rhea hid the third child, Zeus, born to her, and instead gave Cronus a stone wrapped in diapers. Guessing about the deception, Cronus began to pursue Zeus, and he had to turn into a serpent, and turn his nannies into bears. So the constellations Serpent and Bears appeared in the sky. Zeus is the god of thunder, rain, and only he is subject to lightning. He punishes gods and people with it when he administers his judgment. Zeus, however, marked the path for all the heavenly bodies. From Zeus, the goddess of order Themis gave birth to the Seasons. She, according to the Greeks, divided the thirteen-month year into two seasons, winter and summer. Impersonation

11 of these two seasons, Tallo is the deity of flowering, and Karpo is the deity of ripe fruit. 7. The division of the year into seasons also explains the myth of Kore as the daughter of the goddess of fertility Demeter. Gathering wildflowers, Cora was kidnapped by Hades, the god of the underworld and Zeus's brother, and taken to his underworld. She searched in vain for her daughter Demeter, without touching food and drink. When she found out where her daughter was, she refused to return to Olympus and threatened that from now on all the trees on the earth would cease to bear fruit and the herbs would stop growing. Zeus, seeing that the tribe of people could die out, decided to reconcile Demeter and Hades. An agreement was reached between them: from now on, Cora will spend three months with Hades and become the queen of the underworld Persephone, and the remaining nine months can live with her mother Demeter. Therefore, in the winter three months of the year, it rains, cold winds blow and all vegetation dies. In mythology, the idea of ​​the Greeks about the periods of human history was also reflected. The first generation of people lived without worries, did not know sorrows and could not work, since fruits grew in abundance on the trees, and milk and honey dripped directly into their mouths. People were having fun, laughing and not afraid of death. They worshiped the god Kron. This time the Greeks called the Golden Age. The period of bliss and abundance was replaced by the Silver Age, in which people lived up to a hundred years and still could not work, but they themselves had already fundamentally deteriorated: they were quarrelsome and ignorant, did not worship the gods and did not sacrifice to them, for which they were destroyed by Zeus. The people of the Copper Age were distinguished by their rudeness, cruelty, they loved to fight with copper weapons, their food was bread and meat. They all died. The fourth generation of people also lived in the Copper Age, but descended from gods and mortals and therefore were distinguished by nobility and kindness. Among them, the most famous heroes are the Argonauts, Hercules and others. The current generation are people of the Iron Age, bitter and unfair, vicious and deceitful, not showing due respect for their parents. IRANIAN MYTHOLOGY

12 The Iranian mythology is based on the doctrine of the division of the world into two spheres, in which the forces of good and evil, light and darkness, generated by two creator spirits, operate. The struggle of these two forces permeates the cosmic, earthly and spiritual life of people. According to the myths of the Iranians, the world appears to be divided into seven regions, or krugovkarshvars. People live in the central, largest circle. In its middle is the high mountain Khara, around which the sun revolves. In the half where the sun resides, people see light, and when the sun passes into the other half, darkness sets in. The change of seasons and all the order established in the world exist thanks to the law called Rta (its other name is Asha). This law also governs human actions. If people perform prayers and sacrifices, the good deeds of the Mouth are strengthened. Where evil deeds are done and vice reigns, the antipode of Ashi Friend (or Drukh) acts. On the top of Mount Hara live gods of heaven and earth Azman and Zam, gods of the sun and moon Hvar and Mah, deities of the wind Vata and Vayu. Vata was the deity of the wind that brings rain, and Vayu was the merciful deity, the "soul of the gods." A mythical river flows from a huge mountain, flowing into the great sea of ​​Vurukash, from which clouds are filled with water, pouring rain over the earth. For this to happen, the deity of the star Sirius Tishtryi approaches the sea on a white stallion every year. There, a demon of drought awaits him on a black stallion, with which they enter into a duel. If Tishtriya is defeated, he throws himself into the sea, and the waves of the mare produce water in abundance, and Vata delivers water to the clouds. With the emergence of Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda became the god of goodness, light, life and truth. He constantly fights on earth and in heaven with the spirit of evil and destruction, darkness and death Anghro-Manyu. When the struggle ends with the victory of the almighty god of light, the kingdom of prosperity and goodness will come, evil will perish forever, and the sun will shine forever 8. MYTHOLOGY OF MAYA The mythology of the Mayan Indian tribes is known from hieroglyphic manuscripts, many of which are still studied and interpreted by scientists today. The Maya manuscripts served as a kind of reference books for the priests, leading the economic cycle of work and following the ritual of numerous festivals. The climate of Central America allows maize to be harvested in the main

13 Mayan cultures several times a year. However, tropical soils are rapidly losing their fertility, and farmers have to develop new areas, clearing them of forests. The long absence of rain, a sudden transition from drought to hurricane showers, hail all of this created difficulties in the life of the Maya and required them to be observant, and then create a very accurate calendar. Major Mayan deities were associated with much-needed rain for the harvest. There are many rain deities: their names, iconography have changed many times. The personification of the cloudy sky, foreshadowing rain, was considered the Cloud Monster "Monster Kawak", a creature with features of a reptile and a jaguar. The patron god of the first day of the rainy season, as well as the owner of reservoirs, the sky god was the "Heavenly Lizard", "mighty and good ruler", "lord of the world" Itzamna. Streams of rain fell from its open mouth to the ground. They portrayed him with a beard and a bunch of hair on his head, his front limbs could have the appearance of hands, paws or deer hooves. According to some myths, the goddess of the rainbow Ish Chel was considered the wife of Itzamna. Both of them were a pair of creators of God. The Jaguar became the god-protector of the fields, from whose head maize grows. Jaguar is known in manuscripts under the names "Big Predator", "Father Jaguar", "Biting", "Big Paw" and others. The most common image among hieroglyphs: the Jaguar god sits in the mouth-cave of the Cloud Monster, over which it rains from the clouds. The Maya traditionally associated with the water element also snakes, especially boas. The four mythical "Big Snakes" live in the four cardinal directions and send rain to the fields. The Maya usually depicted the celestial sphere as the Cloud Serpent, the rattle on the tail of which produced heavenly thunder, and from the mouth of the serpent rain streams fell to the earth. Many gods and rulers of cities were depicted as emerging from the mouth of the Cloud Serpent. Itzamna acts as the patron saint of the priests and therefore he does not engage in agriculture. The main farmer among the gods, "bringing rain", "long-awaited" was the god K ash-ish with a curved top with a long nose-cloud. Four "colored" hypostases of this god symbolized the four cardinal points. Terrible enemies of farmers, capable of ruining crops, drought, sun, hurricane. A whole group of gods personified these calamities. A pair of gods with the same name (Sak Soot) were the gods of thunderstorms without rain "Deceiving Rattle", "threatening destruction." On the head of the goddess Sak Soot was depicted a snake curled up in a ball and apparently not loving moisture, and the god Sak Soot captured K ash-ish and did not let the rain fall.

14 The lord of the north wind and goddess of storms Chuck Kit: in a patterned skirt and a cape trimmed with feathers, this goddess appears, holding a vessel from which cold water pours into the fields. It blows on the corn god in an icy wind, and he falls dead. The great Chuck Kit is the only female character in the pantheon of the main Mayan gods. Once the main patroness of harvest and fertility among the Mayans was the moon goddess, depicted against the background of a lunar disk with a bare chest and in a military helmet. Her throne is in a cave, which is entwined with plant shoots, and rain clouds float over her. The symbolic image of the 12 lunar months, six drops on the goddess's helmet and six drops on her skirt, adorns the outfit of the Great Moon Goddess. Among many Indian tribes, the goddess of the moon was considered the patroness of women and women's handicrafts, the goddess of fertility, tides and lakes, as well as the goddess of bodily love, impurity and debauchery. The god of thunderstorm Tosh was considered the companion of the goddess of the moon and the enemy of abundance. On the head of the warrior god is a hat with the feathers of the Heavenly Owl, the mistress of the sky of showers. Next to him was depicted the captive of the bound corn god. Later, with the transition of the Maya from the lunar calendar to the solar one, the Moon was transformed into the image of a crop destroyer. Her place as the mistress of lakes and wells, the patroness of women was taken by the virgin goddess Sak Ch up. The patroness of childbirth, medicine and weaving is the goddess of the rainbow in Mayan mythology, Ish Chel. The Maya sun god appears in two forms: as the owner of the warm summer "Good Sun", "Sun-eyed ruler", and as the god of drought "Scorching forests" and "Bringer of disasters". He was depicted with a parrot mask on his head "The sun with a beak", which glows with "multi-colored fiery rays, like guacamayo feathers." The Sun God needs to constantly make sacrifices: to feed him so that he can make his way through the sky. In the northern regions, it was not the sun that was considered the god of drought and death, but the Lord of skulls Um Tsek. He was depicted in the form of a half-skeleton with a necklace of death made of jade rings and bore the title "Doom Thunders". The picture of the world order in Mayan mythology appears in the image of the world tree of seiba. From a cave filled with waters, a mythical tree grows, depicted as a serpent standing on its tail. The two parts of the cosmos (heaven and the underworld) make up the top and bottom of the tree. The cave is the root of the sky. Once, according to myths, the earth and the underworld were one with the sky, but the sky collapsed and separated from the earth. Now the underworld, earth and sky represent the three floors of the universe. V

In the future, they will change places, but for now, in the Mayan world tree, the roots are at the top, that is, the tree appears upside down. The earth is suspended from the sky, and the sky is supported by four pillar trees: red in the east, white in the north, black in the west, yellow in the south. Cloud serpents twine around the branches of the tree. At the same time, the tree appears as a symbol of life and abundance. People emerged from its roots, through it the souls of the dead go to the underworld. Fruits and shoots of edible plants grow on the branches of the tree, water is in the trunk and under the roots, when people cut down a tree, its chips turn into fish. The world tree also contains the idea of ​​renewal of life: people cut down the tree, but it grows again. Both the world tree and the people themselves were created in the cave. Numerous transformations take place on the tree. Heroes who fall on the branches of a tree or to its roots turn into animals or birds. Animals, on the other hand, in the cave take the form of people. The whole night world is a cave, animal deities of the planets, a rainbow heavenly river, a rope in the daytime sky, the Milky Way is a night river, the essence of the umbilical cord of the world. According to one of the myths, when there was no sun, dwarf people built pyramids in the dark. A rope was tied in the sky at that time, stretching from west to east, the "umbilical cord" in which blood flowed. People moved along the rope, and food was delivered to the palaces of the rulers. When the sun came out, the rope broke and blood flowed out of it. Thus ended the era of dwarf people 9. SLAVIC MYTHOLOGY The cosmogonic myths of the Slavs are primarily associated with the image of the world tree, which, however, also existed in the mythology of other peoples. The roots of the tree represent the image of the earth, the top of the tree is the image of the sky. Three parts of the tree are associated with various animals and birds: branches, the top is the habitat of the falcon, nightingale, mythical birds, as well as the sun and moon; the middle part of the tree, its trunk belong to deer, cows, horses, bees; roots to snakes, beavers, sometimes to a bear. The image of a tree symbolized the system of three worlds: heaven, earth and hell; life and death: dry and green tree; the man himself (in the embroidery, the woman in labor was depicted as a sprouted tree).

16 Many myths tell of the conclusion in the spring of an alliance between heaven and earth with the help of birds and other characters. Often, Spring appears as an independent character, whose appearance is associated with the funeral of Winter, the unlocking of heat, marriage with the forces of fertility Yarila, Kostroma, etc. The sun was embodied in Slavic mythology in several characters: this is Svarog, the god of fire and the father of the sun, and Dazhdbog (“ God forbid ") the god of warmth and sunlight, God is the giver of blessings, and Khors the sun as a light. Often the latter appeared in the form of a fiery wheel at the top of the world tree or a loaf-sun. Researchers of mythology believe that the name of the god Khors was preserved in the ritual vocabulary in the words “round dance”, circular dance, “khoroshul” round pie, etc. 10. The image of the sun is also associated with the god of fire, rain and thunder in Slavic mythology Perun. The Thunderer Perun rides across the sky in a chariot of the sun drawn by horses. With the adoption of Christianity, the image of the Thunderer merged with Elijah the Prophet. The moon appears in myths as a month that enters into union with the sun. Among the mythological characters personifying the change of day and night, such Slavic deities as Zorya or Mertsana, Zarnitsa, whose appearance in August testified to the ripening harvest, are known; Sventovit, whose horse is white during the day and splashed with mud at night. The four heads of the idol of this god indicate the four cardinal directions. The annual circle of the sun and the change of seasons in the mythology of the Slavs are associated with such characters as Kolyada and Kupalo. Kolyada, a symbol of the birth of a new, young sun, escaping from the captivity of a gloomy and cold Winter, marked the turn of winter into summer, which falls on the end of December. The day of the summer solstice (end of June) was presented as the meeting of the Sun with its spouse in the Month and was celebrated with the holiday of Kupala. The sun in the form of a wheel rolled down the mountain, which meant the turn of summer for winter, and the Kupala doll was burned at the stake (bathed in fire). At the end of the holiday, all its participants swam in rivers and lakes in order to remove all sorts of diseases and damage from themselves. Chapter 2 BASICS OF TIME UNIT CALENDAR

17 Days People learned to count time in ancient times. The very first units of time were days and months, since a person could observe the sunrise and sunset, new moon and full moon. In Russian, the word "day" comes from the verb "poke around", which means to compose, to connect. Day and night, light and dark time "hunched together", that is, they combined into one whole. Many peoples divided the day into two parts: day and night, but the time was counted differently. So, the Babylonians and Persians began the day with sunrise, Jews, ancient Greeks and Romans, Gauls, Germans from sunset, Arabs from noon. The Zoroastrians, who considered the timing of the moon to be false, argued that the day is the period of time between sunrise. In Rome, there were dies civilis "civil day" and "naturalis dies" "natural day". They both started at midnight. The Romans divided the day into guards or shifts. The Babylonians, Old Testament, and Homer distinguished between three guards by day and three by night, the Greeks and Romans later adopted the Egyptian system of four guards, which was also widely adopted in civilian life to designate parts of the night. Four guards passed in a night, four in a day, each lasting 3 hours. In Jerusalem under the Romans, the hours of the night were also distinguished by the crowing of a cock. The division of the day into hours was first noted in Egypt and Babylonia. The hour in antiquity was, however, not 1/24 part of a full (astronomical) day, as at present, but 1/12 part of the actual time from sunrise to sunset or from sunset. before the sun rises. The length of the hour naturally fluctuated with latitude and season. During the day, the hours were counted from the rising of the sun, at night from the onset of darkness. Thus, the 7th hour roughly corresponded to our noon (or midnight) and marked the end of working hours, as the saying testifies, “six hours are most suitable for work, and the four that follow them, if expressed in letters, tell people: live! " (The Greeks used letters of the alphabet as numbers, so 7, 8, 9 and 10 ZHOI "Live!"). For nighttime ceremonies in temples, Egyptian priests were already around 1800 BC. used the so-called sidereal clock (the hour was recognized by the appearance of a certain star in the corresponding decade of the month). There were two systems

18 divisions of the day: into 12 equal parts, as the Babylonian priests did, and into 24 parts, as the Egyptian priests did. Later, astronomers adopted the Egyptian division of the calendar day, but, following the Babylonian system of counting, they divided the Egyptian hour into 60 equal parts. Medieval astronomers used the same system, and we still divide the hour by 60 minutes. Nevertheless, an hour of variable duration continued to be used in everyday life, and in some areas of the Mediterranean it was preserved as early as the 19th century.11 The day, the period of revolution of the globe around its axis, is also the main unit of time measurement in the modern calendar. However, in astronomy, two types of days are distinguished: stellar and solar. Observing the starry sky at night, you can see that the stars, like other celestial bodies, rise in the east, rise higher and, having reached their highest height, that is, their upper culmination, continue to move westward and sink below the horizon. The next night, the stars repeat their path again. The length of time between the two upper culminations of a star is called sidereal days. This period is 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds and remains unchanged. A sidereal day is divided into 24 sidereal hours, an hour into 60 sidereal minutes, and a minute into 60 sidereal seconds. Sidereal time is used in astronomy to determine which parts of the starry sky will be visible at one time or another of the year or day in a certain area. However, in everyday life, which is associated with the movement of the sun, we use not stellar, but solar days. The disadvantage of using sidereal days is that the same sidereal hour during the year falls on different times of solar days, which are almost four minutes longer than sidereal days. But even with the use of solar days, there is a certain difficulty. The solar day begins at midnight, but their duration from midnight to midnight at different times of the year is not the same: in winter the solar day is longer, and in summer it is shorter. The longest solar day (December 23) is 51 seconds longer than the shortest (September 16). This phenomenon of unevenness is explained by the fact that the trajectory of the Earth around the Sun is not a circle, but an ellipse. It is not without reason that the Parisian watchmakers chose the words: "The sun deceptively shows the time" as the motto for their guild coat of arms.

19 Solar days, the duration of which is associated with the movement of the true Sun, are called true solar days. Using such a unit of measurement is, of course, inconvenient. Therefore, for the unit of time measurement in all clocks: wrist, tower and others, as well as in calendars, it is customary to take the so-called average solar day, the duration of which does not change during the year and is 24 hours. Whatever unit of time we take: stellar, true or average solar days, but at different points of the globe, at different meridians, it will be different. At the end of the 19th century, the Canadian scientist S. Fleshing proposed to divide the Earth's surface into 24 time zones. The time within the time zone for all its points was considered to be the same. It was agreed to consider the meridian passing through the Greenwich Observatory in the suburbs of London to be the initial or zero meridian, from which the standard time begins. The mean solar time of the Greenwich meridian is called universal or world time. Time in time zones located east of the Greenwich meridian increases by an hour and decreases to the west. At the same time, at the end of the 19th century, the date line was set. It begins at the North Pole at meridian 180 and, passing through the Bering Strait and the Pacific Ocean, reaches the South Pole. On the territory of our country, the "border of days" coincides with the state border separating Chukotka from Alaska. From this line, a new day begins on the entire planet. The first people on earth to meet him are the inhabitants of the Chukchi village of Uelen. And the day ends in Wales, Alaska. Watches for Wales and Whalen show the same time, but with a difference of one day. If you swim across the Berenga Strait from west to east, you can get to yesterday, and if from east to west then tomorrow 12. Month Another ancient unit of time measurement month was easily established when observing the appearance of the young moon. Some researchers of the calendar believe that, apparently, it is no coincidence that in many languages ​​the words "month", "measure" and "Moon" have a common root, for example, in Latin: "mensis" (month) and "mensura" (measure), in Greek "Mene" (the moon) and "men" (month), English "moon" (moon) and "month" (month).

20 As you know, the Moon does not have its own glow, but only reflects sunlight. The moon, when it revolves around the earth, is irregularly illuminated by the sun. Therefore, an observer from the Earth either sees it fully illuminated, such a phase of the moon is called a full moon, or does not see it at all, in this case they speak of the birth of a new moon of a new moon. Following the new moon, the phase of the first quarter of the moon, the full moon, the phase of the last quarter of the moon and the new moon successively replace each other. The time interval between two identical phases of the moon, for example, from new moon to new moon, is called synodic month (from the Latin "sindos" "conjunction", "convergence"). Initially, its length was determined at 30 days, and the duration of each phase at about 7 days. At present, the synodic month is taken to be 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 2.8 seconds of mean solar time. However, the moment of the birth of the new moon can be seen only during solar eclipses, which, as you know, do not occur often. Therefore, the beginning of the month was considered to be the appearance of the lunar crescent after the new moon. Such a moment in astronomy is called neomeny, which translated from Greek means "the birth of a new moon." Between the expected new moon and the actual appearance of the new moon in the sky, 1 2 days pass. The length of time between new moon and neo-meia depends on various factors: latitude and longitude of the place where the observer is, local atmospheric conditions, etc. Therefore, the real duration of the synodic month fluctuates relative to the length of its average value (29.5 days). Changing seasons. Tropical year Even in antiquity, people observed the change of seasons, explaining the origin of such a phenomenon in various mythological plots. In Greek mythology, for example, this is a story about the abduction of the daughter of the goddess of agriculture Demeter, the young Persephone, by the gloomy ruler of the underworld Hades. In the Egyptian myth about the annually resurrected and dying Osiris, the god of fertility and at the same time the underworld. What is the change of seasons really connected with? The fact that our planet is making a rotational movement, we judge by the apparent movement of the firmament and what is on it: stars, the sun, the moon. Astronomers call the visible path of the Sun's motion among the stars the ecliptic. Plane

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A calendar is usually called some system with which it becomes possible to differentiate the flow of time at certain intervals, which helps to streamline the course of life. Throughout the history of mankind, there have been a huge variety of calendars, and they were based on different principles. In this article we will discuss calendars and also talk about what form our modern time frame can take.

The origin of the word "calendar"

Before proceeding to the description of the types of number systems themselves, we will find out where the word denoting them comes from. The term "calendar" etymologically goes back to the Latin verb caleo, which translates as "to proclaim." Another variant that has become the source of the word "calendar" is the calendarium. The last in ancient Rome was called a debt book. Caleo preserves for us the memory that in Rome the beginning of each month was solemnly proclaimed in a special way. As for the debt book, its importance is due to the fact that all interest on debts and loans in Rome was paid on the first day.

The origin of the calendar system

The fact that time flows in a certain circle has long been realized by humanity on the basis of cyclically repeating events and phenomena, of which there are quite a few. This, for example, the change of day and night, seasons, the rotation of the celestial spheres, and so on. Based on them, various types of calendars have evolved over time. The basic unit of time for any of them is a day, which includes one revolution of the Earth around its own axis. Then the moon played an important role in history, the phase change of which forms the so-called synodic month. It is so named after the Greek word "synodos", which translates as "rapprochement". It is about the convergence of the sun and the moon in the sky. And finally, the change of four seasons constitutes a tropical year. Its name comes from the Greek "tropos", that is, "turn".

Why do different peoples living on the same planet have different types of calendars? The answer is that the length of the diurnal circle, synodic month and tropical year do not correlate with each other, which provides a wide range of choices when compiling a calendar.

Three types of calendar

On the basis of the described values, attempts were made at different times to compile a calendar suitable for the life of society. Some of them were guided only by the lunar cycles. Thus, the lunar calendars appeared. As a rule, they consisted of twelve months, focused only on the movement of the night star, and did not correspond to the change of seasons. Others, on the contrary, made their calculations only on the basis of the circle of seasons, regardless of the moon and its rhythm. This approach gave rise to solar calendars. Still others took into account both cycles - solar and lunar. And, starting from the latter, they tried, one way or another, to reconcile both of them. They gave rise to mixed solar-lunar calendars.

Moon calendar

Now let's discuss the nuances of time based solely on the movement of the moon. The lunar calendar, as already mentioned, is based on the synodic month - the cycle of changing lunar phases from new moon to full moon. The average length of such a month is 29.53 days. Therefore, in most lunar calendars, a month lasts 29 or 30 days. Moreover, the year most often consists of twelve months. Thus, it turns out that the length of the year is about 354.36 days. As a rule, it is rounded up to 354, while introducing periodically a leap year of 355 days. They do it in different ways everywhere. For example, the Turkish cycle is known, where there are three leap years for eight years. Another option, with a ratio of 30/11, is offered by the Arab system, on the basis of which the traditional Muslim calendar is compiled.

Since lunar calendars have nothing to do with the movement of the sun, they gradually diverge from it due to a difference of more than ten days a year. So, the cycle of the solar calendar in 34 years corresponds to 35 lunar years. Despite this inaccuracy, this system satisfied many peoples, especially at an early stage of development, when they were characterized by a nomadic lifestyle. The moon is easily visible in the sky, and this calendar does not require significant complex calculations. Over time, however, when the role of agriculture increased, its capabilities turned out to be insufficient - it took a more rigid binding of months to the seasons and the range of agricultural work. This stimulated the development of the solar calendar.

Lunar calendar drawback

In addition to the fact that the calendar, based entirely on the lunar cycle, is significantly at odds with the tropical year, it also has another significant disadvantage. It consists in the fact that due to a very complex orbit, the duration of the synodic month is constantly changing. The difference can be up to six hours. It should be said that the starting point of the new month in the lunar calendar is not the new moon, which is difficult to observe, but the so-called neomenia - the first appearance of the new moon at sunset. This event follows the new moon 2 or 3 days later. In this case, the time of neomeny depends on the time of year, the duration of the current month and the location of the observer. This means that a calendar calculated in one place will be completely inaccurate for another area. And in general, no system based on lunar cycles is capable of accurately reflecting the real movement of the night star.

Solar calendar

The history of the calendar cannot be complete without mentioning the solar cycle. I must say that today this is the main form of time reckoning. It is based on 365.24 days. To make the calculations more accurate, leap years are periodically introduced, which collect the accumulated "surplus" in one "extra" day. There are various systems of leap years, due to which many types of calendars based on the movement of the sun are known. The starting point is traditionally considered.Therefore, one of the requirements of the solar calendar is that every year this event falls on the same date.

The first leap system possessed His weak point was that for 128 years he gained one extra day, and the equinox shifted, respectively, back. They tried to correct this inaccuracy in various ways. For example, Omar Khayyam proposed a special 33-year cycle, which then became the basis of the Persian calendar. Later, at the initiative of Pope Gregory, the Gregorian calendar was introduced, which is the main civil calendar of modern society. He also gradually gains one extra day, but this period stretches from 128 years to 3300.

Another attempt to improve the Julian system was made by Milutin Milankovich. He developed the so-called New Julian calendar, which accumulated an error per day as early as 50,000 years. This is done thanks to a special rule for secular years (they can be considered leap years only if the remainder is 2 or 6 when divided by 900). The disadvantage of the Gregorian and New Julian calendars, with their accuracy, is the fact that the equinox date becomes floating, and falls on different days every year.

Solar-lunar calendar

Finally, let's touch on the solar-lunar calendar. Its essence is to reconcile in one cycle the movement of the sun with the movement of the moon. To do this, it was necessary to periodically extend the year by one month. Such a year was called embolismic. In ancient Greece and Babylon, three additional months were introduced over eight years. Its error is one and a half days for the entire eight-year period. The longer cycle, according to the history of the calendar, was adopted in China, although it was known both in Babylon and in Greece. Its error is one day in 219 years.

Varieties of calendars

Now let's talk about what kinds of calendar exist today. It's about design, not astronomical features. So, the most in demand today are loose-leaf, wall, pocket and tear-off calendars.

Flip calendars

Another name for this type of typographic publication is "house". Although some options may have a different design, including a plastic stand. The latter are often integrated with a pencil holder and paper clip compartments. The bottom line is that a loose-leaf calendar is designed so that the tables of months are located on different pages that need to be turned over in a timely manner. Together with the calendar, various information or simply beautiful images that are included in the overall design of the room are very conveniently located on them. Such products are used most often in offices, conveniently located in the corner of the desktop. A desk calendar is also often used as a gift or souvenir.

Wall calendar

Many people in the kitchen have a calendar attached to the wall, refrigerator door, or door. Wall calendars are very popular because they are easy to use, and their aesthetic value makes them a great home decoration nowadays. Sometimes they are combined with house technology. In this case, wall calendars, as a rule, are real albums dedicated to a particular topic. And the function, in fact, of calculating time fades into the background in them.

Pocket calendar

This type is probably the most common in our time. Pocket calendars are small cards with a calendar plate on one side and a drawing on the other. Very often, such products serve as bookmarks, business cards. They are often used for advertising purposes as well. Pocket calendars are a kind of postcards that have an additional function. You can easily put them in your wallet and carry them with you, taking them out as needed.

Tear-off calendars

The Soviet tear-off calendar is familiar to everyone. Once they met in almost every home, but today their popularity has dropped somewhat, although they are still often found. These products are real books, where each page is dedicated to one day of the year. When a new day dawns, the old page comes off. Therefore, it is called tear-off. The back of the page contains some text. As a rule, each such calendar is dedicated to a topic and provides a rather informative source within its framework.

Church calendars

A few words should also be said about what the church calendar is, since many, coming to church or reading church literature, are faced with a double dating system. In fact, the Orthodox Church calendar refers to the usual Julian calendar. Just over two thousand years, it began to lag behind the real astronomical course of time by almost two weeks. The Catholic Church corrected this, resulting in the emergence of the Gregorian calendar. But the Orthodox did not accept this reform. The Russian Orthodox Church and several other independent jurisdictions, for example, still adhere to the Julian chronology. But most of the Orthodox churches in the world still switched to the New Julian calendar, which currently coincides with the Gregorian one.

The church calendar, therefore, has at least three varieties. In some countries, churches also use their own national calendars. For example, the Coptic system of chronology is widespread in Egypt. Other religious organizations also have their own calendars. Known, for example, Vedic, Buddhist, Islamic, Baha'i and other systems of time organization.

Mayan calendar

In conclusion, let's say a few words about what the ancient Mayan calendar is. In fact, it is not one, but a whole system of different chronology. The Mayan civil calendar for the year was solar and consisted of 365 days. Its main purpose was to streamline agricultural life. There was also a ritual calendar called Tzolkin. This translates as "days count". It is somewhat unusual in its structure. So, the calendar for the year according to Tzolkin contained not 365, but 260 days. The latter were divided into two cycles - twenty-day and thirteen-day. The days of the first of them had their own name, and the second contained only a serial number. The Mayan system of time counting also included such periods as tuns (360 days), katuns (20 tuns), baktuns (20 katuns). The epoch of 260 katuns was considered the largest. In terms of the system of counting we are accustomed to, this is 5125 years. 2012 ended one such era, called the fifth sun, and began a new era of the sixth.

Has a very long history. He is a representative of the lunisolar calendar. As in all calendars of this type, the length of its months is alternately 29 and 30 days, every three years a 13th month is added to the Hebrew calendar. This month is called Veadar; it is customary to insert it before the month of Nissan every 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th and 19th year of the 19-year cycle. Nisan is the first month of the Hebrew calendar, and the years are counted from the seventh month called Tishri. Due to the periodic insertion of the month of Veadar, the vernal equinox always falls on the lunation in the month of Nisan.

In the Hebrew calendar there is an ordinary year, containing 12 months, and an embolismic year, the number of months in which is 13. In the embolismic year, out of 30 days of the month Veadar inserted before Nisan, one day is referred to the sixth month of Adar (it usually contains 29 days), and the remaining 29 days are the month of Veadar. In general, the Jewish calendar is a very complex calendar, like all lunisolar calendars.

Muslim calendar. Initially, the Arabs used a lunisolar calendar that resembled the Hebrew calendar. It is believed that the errors of the old calendar forced the Prophet Muhammad to abandon additional months and introduce a lunar calendar, the first year of which was 622. The year in this calendar consists of 12 months, alternately containing 29 or 30 days. The average length of a year in such a calendar is 354.37 days. It is impossible to add to these 12 months an additional 13th month or additional days to individual months to harmonize with the length of the solar year, with the exception of one additional day in leap lunar years, then the number of days increases from 354 to 355 in order for the new moon to be closer from the first of the month. It is customary to add this additional day to the last month of the year, and then the number of days in it is 30. All lunar calendars have two periods: a period of 8 years is called the "Turkish cycle", a period of 30 years is called the "Arab cycle". Some countries of the East - Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, simultaneously use calendars built on both cycles. It is impossible to add to these 12 months an additional 13th month or additional days to individual months to match the length of the solar year, with the exception of one additional day in leap lunar years, when the number of days increases from 354 to 355 so that the new moon is located near the first of the month. This extra day is included in the last month of the year and then the number of days in it is 30.

In the Muslim calendar, over time, the beginning of the year moves all the time, Therefore, in the lunar calendar there are no seasons and the division of months into summer, winter, autumn and spring, due to the fact that they all fall on different seasons. There are special tables for translating Muslim chronological systems into European ones.

Egyptian calendar. The Egyptian calendar was originally lunar. However, since the whole life of the Egyptians was closely associated with the annual floods of the Nile, they created a different calendar, focusing on the appearance of the star Saturn (it appeared regularly during the summer solstice, and soon the Nile flooded). The Egyptian solar year contained 12 months of 30 days, at the end of the last month there were five additional days, so that a total of 365 days was obtained. However, over time it turned out that the calendar year was a quarter of a day shorter than the solar year, and over time, the calendar diverged more and more from the seasons. Observing more closely the risings of Sirius, the Egyptians came to the conclusion that the 1461 Egyptian year of 365 days is equal to 1460 solar years of 365.25 days. The mistake had to be corrected. However, the Egyptian priests have long discouraged any change in the calendar. And only in 238 BC. Ptolemy III issued a decree adding one day to every fourth year, i.e. introduced a leap year. Thus, the modern solar calendar was born.

Prehistoric Chinese calendar was lunar. Emperor Yao, around 2357 BC, was dissatisfied with the existing lunar calendar, which was inconvenient for farming, and therefore ordered astronomers to determine the dates of the equinoxes and create a seasonal calendar suitable for agriculture. It was necessary to somehow reconcile the 354-day lunar calendar with the 365-day astronomical year. To resolve this situation, Chinese astronomers have proposed adding 7 plug-in months every 19 years, following detailed instructions. As a result, although the solar and lunar years were basically consistent, there were still certain differences that were corrected as they reached a noticeable difference. However, the calendar was still imperfect: the years did not have the same length, and the days of the equinox fell on different dates. The year in the Chinese calendar consisted of 24 crescents. The cycle of the Chinese calendar is 60 years, and has several internal periods. Interestingly, each year of the Chinese calendar has a rather funny name, for example, "year of the cow", "year of the tiger", "hare", "dragon", etc. These years are repeated with a period of 12 years. In 1911, the Gregorian calendar was officially adopted in the new Republic of China, and although the peasants continued to use the ancient lunar calendar, it was banned from 1930.

Mayan and Aztec calendars.

The ancient civilization of the Mayan tribe had a very perfect calendar, containing 365 days, divided into 18 months of 20 days each, there were 5 more days left, which were not counted in any month. There were 28 weeks in a year, each of which had 13 days; one day remained superfluous. The Mayan calendar was much the same.

The Aztec calendar stone built on a basalt slab of 3.6 m in size is very interesting. This stone discovered in Mexico, the detachment of Cortes in 1519. In the center of the stone was depicted, surrounded by twenty days of the month, the Sun. Adjacent to the sun were four large rectangles in which heads were depicted, symbolizing, apparently, the dates of four previous world eras. The heads and symbols in the rectangles of the next circle represent 20 days of the month. The large triangular figures represent the rays of the sun, and the two fiery serpents at the base of the outer circle represent the heat of the heavens.

Today the most famous chronology systems are the Julian calendar ("old"), introduced in the Roman Republic by Julius Caesar on January 1, 45 BC, and the Gregorian calendar ("new"), which was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582. But history knows other calendars - some of them were used by the ancients, while others were introduced into use only recently.

Mayan calendar

The Mayan calendar actually consists of three different calendars: the Long Count (astronomical calendar), Tzolkin (divine calendar), and Haab (civil calendar). The haab calendar had 365 days, and it was divided into 19 months: at 18 there were 20 days, and at 19 there were only 5 days. In the Tzolkin there were 20 "periods" of 13 days each. The Tzolkin was used to define the days of Mayan ceremonies and religious events. Long counting was used to determine long time periods in the "general cycle", which has 2.88 million days (about 7885 years). The ancient Maya believed that the universe collapses and rebuilds every 2.88 million days.

International revised calendar

The international revised calendar has 13 months, each of which has 28 days. Months in it go, as in the usual calendar - from January to December, and in June-July the 13th month is added - "sol". According to such a calendar, Easter will always be on April 15th, every Christmas falls on a Wednesday, and each year will begin on Sunday. However, in every month, the 13th will fall on Friday. The calendar was made by Moses Costworth in 1899, but was never adopted.

Egyptian calendar

The first calendar that the ancient Egyptians began to use is the lunar calendar based on the floods of the Nile River. This calendar turned out to be very inaccurate, and an error of up to 80 days could occur in it. Therefore, the Egyptians introduced a solar calendar based on the movement of the star Sirius. The two calendars were used at the same time, but they soon began to differ greatly, forcing the Egyptians to add an extra month to the lunar calendar every three years. But even with the additional month, the calendars did not coincide, so the Egyptians introduced a new calendar in which there were 365 days, divided by 12 months. Each month had 30 days, and at the end of the year 5 additional days were added.

Positivist calendar

The positivist calendar was intended to replace the Catholic calendar. It was invented in 1849 by Auguste Comte. All of his 13 months had exactly 28 days, divided into four seven-day weeks. Each week of this calendar is dedicated to an outstanding personality in world history.

Chinese calendar

The Chinese calendar was solar-lunar, that is, it was calculated based on the position of the sun and moon. There were 12 months and 353-355 days in a year, while a whole extra month was added in a leap year (resulting in 383-385 days in the year). The leap month was added approximately once every three years. Although this calendar is still used in China, it is mainly used to calculate the days of Chinese ceremonies and weddings, and the Gregorian calendar is used for everything else.

Ethiopian Orthodox calendar

Ethiopia celebrated the new millennium on September 12, 2007, seven and a half years after the rest of the world. This happened because Ethiopia uses the Coptic Orthodox calendar, which has 13 months of 30 days each. In leap years, an extra month of five or six days is added. The calendar was often used in the West until 1582, after which it was replaced by the Gregorian calendar. Ethiopia did not switch to the Gregorian calendar due to the excessive conservatism and religiosity in the country.

French revolutionary calendar

The French revolutionary calendar is also called the French Republican calendar and was an unsuccessful attempt to "de-Christianize" France. The calendar was used in France from October 24, 1793 until January 1, 1806, when it was finally abolished. The year of the beginning of the revolution (1792) was declared the beginning of a new era. The era "from the birth of Christ" and the beginning of the year from January 1 were abolished. Instead, the countdown of each year began on September 22 (the first day of the Republic). Considering that the calendar was introduced in 1793, it was of the 1st year, instead, the countdown immediately began from the 2nd year.

Roman calendar

The Roman calendar is a great example of what a calendar shouldn't look like. This system of chronology, sometimes referred to as the "pre-Julian calendar", was created by King Romulus at the time of the founding of Rome. The calendar had 10 months, with a total of 304 days, as well as an additional 61 days that were not included in any month or week. Since the months did not coincide with the seasons of the year, King Numa Pompilius added two additional months, Januarius (January) and Februarius (February). Subsequently, the pontiffs added additional months for their personal purposes. Some of them were even bribed to add or decrease the length of the year. Julius Caesar later introduced the Julian calendar after he became pontiff.

Aztec calendar

The Aztec calendar was composed of two different calendars: shiupoualli and tonalpoulli. The usual Shiupowalli calendar had 365 days, divided into 18 months of 20 days each. Five extra days were added at the end of the year, and another 12 days were added every 52 years. The tonalpoalli ritual calendar had 20 months, divided into 13 days, that is, there were 260 days in total in a year. Each of these 260 days was designated by a separate symbol and was dedicated to a specific god. Both calendars coincided once every 52 years, and the Aztecs believed that the world could be destroyed at the end of each such cycle. To prevent impending doom, they performed a 12-day ritual called the "festival of new fire" during which they practiced human sacrifice.

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